DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM

The digital control system has been introduced to improve tracking performance for
complex systems. Microprocessors and Microcomputers are used in the control systems
to obtain necessary controlling action. Such controllers use digital signals which exists
only at finite instants, in the form of short pulses (Digital controllers). Thus the digital
control system is hybrid system using the combination of continuous time signals &
digital signals.
The figure below shows the block diagram of a single loop digital control systems.

Operation
The digital computer (microcontroller/microprocessor) receives the error or only the
reference signal and performs the calculations (program) in order to provide an output
equals or near desired signal.
The loop (forward feedback) contains both analog and digital signals and must provide
the means of conversion from one form to another to be used by each sub-system.
A device that convert analog signal to digital signal is called Analog to Digital Converter
(ADC). Conversely, a device that converts Digital signals to Analog signals is called a
Digital to Analog Converter (DAC).
ADC is not instantaneous and need two-step processes and thus there is a delay
between the analog input voltage and the output digital word. In ADC, the analog signal
is first converted into a sample signal and then converted to a sequence binary numbers
(digital signal). The sampling rate must be at least twice the bandwidth of the signal.

Advantages of Digital Systems

 i. Accuracy. Digital signals are represented in terms of zeros and ones with
typically 12 bits or more to represent a single number.
ii. Implementation errors. Digital processing of control signals involves addition
and multiplication by stored numerical values. The errors that result from digital
representation and arithmetic are negligible.
iii. Flexibility. An analog controller is difficult to modify or redesign once
implemented in hardware. A digital controller is implemented in firmware or
software, and its modification is possible without a complete replacement of the
original controller.
iv. Speed. The speed of computer hardware has increased exponentially over the
recent years. This increase in processing speed has made it possible to sample
and process control signals at very high speeds. Because the interval between
samples, the sampling period, can be made very small, digital controllers achieve
performance that is essentially the same as that based on continuous monitoring
of the controlled variable.
v. Cost. Although the prices of most goods and services have steadily increased, the
cost of digital circuitry continues to decrease. Advances in very large scale
integration (VLSI) technology have made it possible to manufacture better,
faster, and more reliable integrated circuits and to offer them to the consumer at
a lower price. This has made the use of digital controllers more economical even
for small, low-cost applications.
vi. Noise immunity. Digitized information can be transported through a noise
channel without degradation.
vii. Compatibility with other digital system

Disadvantages
i. Digital systems require greater bandwidth than analog to transmit the same
information.
ii. The detection of the digital signals require communication systems to be
synchronized which is not the case in analog systems.
iii. They may experience sampling errors
 DATA LOGGING
Data logging or data acquisition system is the system which scans a number of input
signals, usually in form of analog voltage/currents.
The data logger records the information sequentially in digital form.
The data logger contains following elements:
(a) Data loggers (scanning system)

(b) Multiplexer

(c) Analogue-Digital Converter (ADC)/ digitizer

(d) Address line console

(e) Output device

Data loggers
In the data scanner, the data/ information which is represented on the number of input
line is sampled sequentially. The analog voltages are sampled at a very fast rate. The
voltage on the line being scanned at any instant of time is applied to digitizer (ADC)
where it is converted into a digital signal. The digitizer can also initiate a command
which instructs the output to record the data. The data logging output devices are
printers, tapes, etc

Fig. Data logger

Data acquisition system (DAS) are also used as interface between the real world and
digital computer, as shown in the following arrangement:
It is assumed that the process is under control of many process control loop and there is
a provision of analogue process variable measurement being available as scaled
voltages, therefore, some signal conditioning to convert all the measurements into a
given specified voltage range as required in a data acquisition system.

Multiplexer
Multiplexer allows information to be switched from several input lines to a single
output line in a specified sequence.
A multiplexer is an electronic equivalent of a switch with a blade which rotates very
rapidly so that it moves from one transducer to another. The blade remains in contact
with the transducer long enough for ADC to sample and digitize the analog signal.
The digitized data is then transmitted along the data bus of the system to the CPU.

When the CPU has analyzed the data from one or more transducers and compare it with
the appropriate set point in the computer program, it sends signals along the data bus
to the valves controlling the system. The digital signal produced by the CPU is converted
into analog signal by DAC and the analog signal is transmitted to the appropriate output
valve via a de-multiplexer.
With Time Division Multiplexer (TDM) systems, a number of different channels can be
transmitted over common line by allowing the common line to each channel in turn for
a given period of time, i.e, at any particular instant; only one channel is connected to the
common line.

HUMAN-MACHINE INTERFACE
This is the hardware or software through which an operator interacts with a controller.
An HMI can range from a physical control panel with buttons and indicator lights to an
industrial PC with a color graphics display running dedicated HMI software.
Software and hardware that allows human operators to monitor the state of a process
under control, modify control settings to change the control objective, and manually
override automatic control operations in the event of an emergency. The HMI also
allows a control engineer or operator to configure set points or control algorithms and
parameters in the controller. The HMI also displays process status information,
historical information, reports, and other information to operators, administrators,
managers, business partners, and other authorized users. Operators and engineers use
HMIs to monitor and configure set points, control algorithms, send commands, and
adjust and establish parameters in the controller. The HMI also displays process status
information and historical information.
REMOTE TELEMENTRY UNIT (RTU)
The remote terminal unit (RTU) is a standalone data acquisition and control unit. The
primary function is to control and acquire data from process equipment at the remote
location and also to transfer that data back to a central unit. The data might be in
electric parameter such as RMS value of voltage and current, frequency, active power
etc. or in various quantities e.g. temperatures, oil level, switch status etc. recorded in the
field of distribution transformer and feeder by using data acquisition device. The central
computer control received the data via communication protocol e.g. is IEC 61850, DNP3
etc. and only acquired data will processed and displayed by Human-Machine Interface
(HMI)
A remote terminal unit (RTU) is a microprocessor-controlled electronic device that
interfaces objects in the physical world to a distributed control system or SCADA
(supervisory control and data acquisition system) by transmitting telemetry data to the
system and employing messages to control the connected objects from the supervisory
system.

Fig. RTU architecture

Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA)

This is a system used for controlling, monitoring, and analyzing industrial industrial
devices and processes. The system consists of both software and hardware components
and enables remote and onsite gathering of data from the industrial equipment. In that
way, it allows companies to remotely manage industrial sites such as wind farms,
because the company can access the turbine data and control them without being on
site.

The SCADA system consists of elements under four categories:

i. Interfacing devices: Sensors, actuators, remote controlling units (RTUs)
ii. Communication systems
Guided: PLCs, fiber optics, coaxial cables
Unguided
iii. Master terminal units (MTU) / SCADA centre: It is a computer host server or
master station.
iv. Human-Machine Interface

SCADA systems are used to monitor and control plant or equipment in industries such;
i. Telecommunications
ii. Wastewater control
iii. Energy
iv. Oil and gas transportation

OPERATION OF MULTIPLEXERS AND DEMULTIPLEXERS

Generally, the number of data inputs to a multiplexer is a power of two such as 2, 4,

8,16, etc. Some of the mostly used multiplexers include 2-to-1, 4-to-1, 8-to-1 and 16-to-1
multiplexers.
These multiplexers are available in IC forms with different input and select line
configurations.
Some of the available multiplexer ICs include:
74157 (2-to-1 MUX)
78158 (2-to-1 MUX)
74352(4-to-1 MUX)
74153 (4-to-1 MUX)
74152 (8-to-1 MUX) and
74150 (16-to-1 MUX).

2-to-1 Multiplexer
A 2-to-1 multiplexer consists of two inputs D0 and D1, one select input S and one output
Y. Depends on the select signal, the output is connected to either of the inputs. Since
there are two input signals only two ways are possible to connect the inputs to the
outputs, so one select is needed to do these operations.
If the select line is low, then the output will be switched to D0 input, whereas if select
line is high, then the output will be switched to D1 input.
The figure 1.3 below shows the block diagram of a 2-to-1 multiplexer which connects
two 1-bit inputs to a common destination.

Truth Table

Truth Table
S D1 D0 Y
0 0 1 D0
1 1 0 D1

Boolean Expression
Y = Ś D0 + S D1

4-to-1 Multiplexer
A 4-to-1 multiplexer consists four data input lines as D0 to D3, two select lines as S0 and
S1 and a single output line Y. The select lines S1 and S2 select one of the four input lines
to connect the output line. The particular input combination on select lines selects one
of input (D0 through D3) to the output.
Boolean Expression

From the above expression of the output, a 4-to-1 multiplexer can be implemented by
using basic logic gates. The logic circuit of 4:1 MUX is implemented by four 3-inputs
AND gates, two 1-input NOT gates, and one 4-inputs OR gate.
In this circuit, each data input line is connected as input to an AND gate and two select
lines are connected as other two inputs to it. The AND gate output is connected to with
inputs of OR gate so as to produce the output Y.

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS (PLC)

It is a special form of microprocessor based controller that uses programmable memory
to store instructions and implement functions such as logic sequencing, timing, counting
and arithmetic operations in order to control machines and processes.
It is designed to be operated by engineers with limited knowledge of computers and
computing languages, thus the designer of PLC can pre-program it in order to control by
entering programs using simple languages.
Originally, programmable controllers used relays that provided sequencing of ON /OFF
output devices based on ON/OFF inputs. The move from relays logic controllers to
computer based devices, i.e PLCs was due to:
i. The input and output variables of descrete state control system are binary in
nature just as the computers.
ii. Many of control relays of the ladder diagram can be replaced by software,
meaning less hardware failure.
 iii. It is easy to make changes in program sequence of events when it is only a
change in the software.
iv. Special functions such as time delay action and counters are easy to form in
software
v. Semi-conductor industry develops solid-state devices that can control high
power in response to low-level command from computer.
PLC System Block diagram

Processor Unit (CPU)

It is the unit containing the microprocessor. It interprets the input signals and carry out
the control action according to the program stored in the memory and communicating
the decision as action signal to the output devices.
Power Supply Unit
It is needed to convert mains a.c voltage to low d.c voltage, e.g 5v,12v, or 24v etc
necessary for the processor input and output modules.
Programmable Device
It is used to enter required program into memory of the processor. The program is
developed in the device and the transfer to the memory unit of the PLC.
Memory Unit
This is where program containing control action can be executed by the microprocessor.
Input and Output Interfaces
This is where the processor receives information from external devices and
communicates the information to the external devices. The input might be inform of
switches or other sensors such as photoelectric cells, temperature sensors etc. Output
might be motor coils, solenoid valves etc.
Communication Interface
This is used to receive and transmit data on communication network from or to other
remote PLCs. It is connected with such action as devices verification, data acquisitions,
and synchronization between user applications for connection management.
Input Devices
Inputs are switches, push buttons, sensors etc, that can energize relays; and outputs are
contacts that can ON or OFF lights, starter motors, or energize solenoids.

Fig. Limit switches

Control relays can be used for much more than energy level transistors. When the entire
control is implemented using relay, the system is called a relay sequencer.
A relay sequencer consist of a combination of many relays including special time delay
types which are wired up to implement a specified sequence of events.
Fig. Time delay contacts

Output Devices
Lamps

Solenoid
Ladder Diagram Program
A ladder diagram program is written in pictorial form similar to the relay control
circuits. The program is displayed on the screen for elements such as Normal Open
(N/O) and Normal Closed (N/C) contacts, timers, counters and sequencers are
represented in pictorial form.
Under correct logic conditions, power flows from left hand rail to right hand rail. This
line is known as ladder line or rung.
General rules used to drawing ladder diagram program are:
i. Power flows from left to right.
ii. An output coil may not be connected direct to left hand rail.
iii. Normal/Open or Normal Closed or generally input may not be located to the
right of the output coil.
iv. Only one output may be in rung.
v. Each output coil is specified only once program.
The lamp is controlled by the N/O push button A and N/C button B. Since the two are
wired in series, they can be thought of supplying independent inputs to an AND gate as
shown above.
The output from gate controls the state of lamp. There is a difference between (a) and
(b) in that real circuit, the supply to the pushbutton B is output A. In logic circuit signals,
A and B are from independent sources.
The PLC ladder diagram attempts to bring the difference between the two forms. The
address designation depends on the type of program controller.
Some controllers may receive a certain address for physical inputs and output devices,
other address for software control relays and other for special functions.

OR LOGIC
It is basic gate. Whenever any one of the input conditions is true the output becomes
true.
Logic equation
Y= A+B
Ladder logic diagram of the OR logic

Two limit switches connected in parallel and used to control a solenoid valve.
NOT logic
It is one of the basic logic gate output always the complement of input
Truth Table of NOT logic

NAND LOGIC
It is an universal gate. Whenever the all the input must true condition the output
becomes false or If any one of the inputs is false condtion then output becomes true.
Truth Table of the NAND Logic
Exclusive OR
The output of this circuit is ON only when pushbutton A or B is pressed, but not both.
Case 1When A= 0 and B= 0:
Let us analyze main rung. When I1 = 0, the normally open instruction is false and,
normally closed instruction is true, but since normally open instruction is false, there is
no logical continuity and output cannot be energized. Similar analysis can be done in
parallel rung, normally closed instruction will be true and normally open instruction
will be false and output is not energized.
Case 2When A= 0 and B = 1:
In main rung, normally open instruction will be false and, normally closed instruction
will be true, but since there is no logical continuity this rung logic cannot energize the
output.
But, in parallel rung, normally closed instruction will be true, as well as normally open
instruction will also be true, hence there is logical continuity, and output is energized.
Case 3 When I1 = 1 and I2 = 0:
This case is similar to case 2, only the role of inputs are interchanged i.e. here main rung
is true and energizes the output and parallel rung is false.
Case 4
When both inputs are true, the main ladder rung as well as the parallel ladder rung goes
false. In main rung, normally open instruction is true but normally closed instruction is
false. Hence, there is no logical continuity. In parallel ladder rung, normally closed
instruction is false and normally open instruction is true, and here also there is no
logical continuity. Hence, the output is not energized.
Example 1: Write instruction list for the following ladder diagram.

Solution
LD X8
OR X9
AND X6
OUT Y9
LD X10
OR1 M80
AN1 X11
OUT T6
K = 40
OUT M30
END

Example 2: Draw a ladder diagram for the following PLC instruction list
LD X400
OR X401
OUT M100
LD X402
AND 403
OUT M101
LD M100
OR M101
OUT Y430
END

Solution

PLC LANGUAGES
i. Instruction list
ii. Structured text
iii. Sequential function charts (SFC)
iv. Ladder diagram
v. Function block diagram (FBD)
Leading manufacturer for PLC
i. Allen Bradley
ii. ABB
iii. Siemens
iv. Mitsubishi PLC
v. Hitachi PLC
vi. Delta PLC
vii. General Electric (GE) PLC
viii. Honeywell PLC