NTC Exam Preparation

(Level 7)

Dipak Kumar Nidhi

Basic Electronics
 Diode
Unabiased PN Junction

• Diffusion
• Electric Field
• Drift

• The direction of drift current is opposite to that of the diffusion

current
 Diode
• There are two operating regions in the p-n junction diode:
• P-type
• N-type

• There are three biasing conditions for p-n junction diode based on the
voltage applied:

1. Zero bias: There is no external voltage applied to the p-n junction

diode.

2. Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is

connected to the p-type while the negative terminal is connected to
the n-type.

3. Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is

connected to the p-type and the positive is connected to the n-type.
 Diode
Forward Bias
 Diode
Forward Bias

• When the
▪ P-type is connected to the positive terminal of the battery
▪ N-type to the negative terminal
then the p-n junction is said to be forward-biased.
• The built-in electric potential and the applied electric field are in
opposite directions. Hence, the resultant electric field has lesser value

• This results in a less resistive and thinner depletion region.

• The depletion region’s resistance becomes negligible when the

applied voltage is large.

• For silicone, when the voltage is 0.7 V and for germanium, when the
voltage is 0.3 V, the potential barriers decrease and there is a flow of
current.
 Diode
Reverse Bias
 Diode
Reverse Bias

• When the
▪ P-type is connected to the negative terminal of the battery
▪ N-type is connected to the positive
The p-n junction is said to be reverse biased.

• The built-in electric field and the applied electric field are in the same
direction.

• When the two fields are added, the resultant electric field creating a
more resistive, thicker depletion region.

• If the applied voltage becomes larger, The depletion region becomes

more resistive and thicker .
 Diode
VI Characteristics of PN junction diode
 Diode
Shockley equation
 Diode
Comparison of Si and Ge diodes

Parameters Si Diode Ge Diode

Cut-in Voltage 0.7 0.3

Reverse Saturation nA A
Current

Effect of Temperature Less More

Breakdown Voltage Higher Lower

Application Rectifiers Low voltage, low

temperature applications
 Diode
Junction Diode Ideal and Real Characteristics
 Diode
Q. An arc voltage of peak value 20V is connected in series with a silicon
diode and a load resistance of 500 . If the forward resistance of diode is
10 .
Find
I. Peak current through the diode
II. Peak output voltage
III. Peak ideal current
 Diode
Zener Diode

• The zener diode begins to conduct in the reverse direction.

• When the reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds
the rated voltage of the device a process called Avalanche
Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor depletion layer and a current
starts to flow through the diode to limit this increase in voltage.
 Diode
Zener Diode VI Characteristics
 Diode
Zener Diode Regulator
 Diode
Zener Diode Regulator

The output voltage Vout is always constant and is equal to Vz.

1. When RL changes 200  to 2 K

• When RL increases IL decreases and IZ increases giving

Vo = IL RL = Constant

• When RL decreases IL increases and IZ decreases giving

Vo = IL RL = Constant

2. When Vin changes

When Vin increases, I increases, hence the excess current flows
through zener diode giving
Vo = IL RL = Constant & vice versa
Diode
 Diode
Q. A zener regulator has a 9v zener voltage with variable load resistance as

Claculate
I. Current through the series resistance
II. Maximum and minimum load current
III. Maximum and minimum zener current
IV. Maximum and minimum power dissipation in the zener diode
Diode
 BJT
BJT
• BJT was invented by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William
Shockley in 1947.

• In 1952, transistor was used in telephone switching circuits

• BJT stands for Bipolar junction transistor because the transistor

operation is carried out by two types of charge carriers i.e. majority and
minority carriers

Applications:
• Control systems, Satellite and mobile phones

• High speed electronic switch

• Amplifier in communication system

BJT
 Electric Electronics
Bipolar Junction Transistor

• A BJT is a single component made of silicon where both electrons

and holes are used as charge carriers.

• A small current is injected at one of its terminals to control large

amounts of current flowing between the other two terminals.

• This makes the device capable of performing switching or amplification.

• Bipolar junction transistor is of two types:

▪ PNP transistors
▪ NPN transistors
 Electric Electronics
NPN Transistor

Base - Lightly doped

Emitter - Heavily doped
Collector - Moderately doped
 Electric Electronics
NPN Transistor

Emitter-Base junction is forward biased

Collector- Base junction is reversed biased
 Electric Electronics
Biasing
• Biasing is the process of providing DC voltage which helps in the
functioning of the circuit.

• A transistor is based in order to make the emitter base junction

forward biased and collector base junction reverse biased, so that it
maintains in active region, to work as an amplifier

• Need for DC biasing

• The input voltage should exceed cut-in voltage for the transistor to
be ON.

• The BJT should be in the active region, to be operated as

an amplifier.
 Electric Electronics
Common Base (CB) Configuration

• Current Amplification Factor (α)

 Electric Electronics
Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

• Base Current Amplification factor (β)

 Electric Electronics
Common Collector (CC) Configuration

• Current Amplification Factor (γ)

 Electric Electronics
NPN Transistor

• DC Current Gain, Beta ( β )

𝑰𝒄
β=
𝑰𝑩
• Alpha( α )
𝑰𝑪
α=
𝑰𝑬
β
• Hence, α=
1+β
 Electric Electronics
NPN Transistor
 Electric Electronics
Active Region

This is the region in which transistors have many applications.

This is also called as linear region.
A transistor while in this region, acts better as an Amplifier.
 Electric Electronics
Cut-off Region

Saturation Region

Transistor as a switch
• Transistor acts as a switch while operating in between cut-off region and
saturation region
 Electric Electronics
The Common Emitter Configuration
 Electric Electronics
The Common Emitter Configuration
 Electric Electronics
Amplifier
• The Amplifier is an electronic circuit that is used to increase the
strength of a weak input signal in terms of voltage, current, or
power.

• The process of increasing the strength of a weak signal is known

as Amplification .
 Electric Electronics
Common Emitter Amplifier(NPN)

IE = IC + IB --- (i)

Vout = Vcc – IC RL --- (ii)

 Electric Electronics
Small Signal Analysis(AC response)

AC response:
1. AC equivalent circuit
2. Replace the transistor with its equivalent model/ circuit

AC equivalent circuit
1. Short circuit all the DC sources
2. Short all the capacitors
3. Redraw the network removing all the elements which are short
circuited in step 1 and step 2.
 Electric Electronics
Small Signal Analysis(AC response)

An equivalent model is combination of circuit elements properly

chosen to best represent the actual behavior of device under specific
operating point.
 Electric Electronics
Transistor small signal model
Hybrid model (h parameters)
• They use mix parameters as Z parameters, Y parameters,
voltage ratio, and current ratios to represent the relationship
between voltage and current in a two port network

• Parameters are defined in general terms for any operating

• Two port network

 Electric Electronics
Hybrid model (h parameters)

• In matrix form, it can be represented as

 Electric Electronics
Let us short circuit the output port of a two port network

• Now, ratio of input voltage to input current, at short circuited

output port is:

This is referred to as the short circuit input impedance.

• Now, the ratio of the output current to input current at the short-
circuited output port is:

This is called short-circuit current gain of the network

 Electric Electronics
Let us open circuit the input port

• Now, ratio of input voltage to output voltage, when input port is

open circuited :

This is referred to as the Open circuit reverse voltage gain.

• Now,

This is called open circuit output admittance.

 Electric Electronics
h parameter equivalent network

From equation (i) From equation (ii)

Combining the two network

 Electric Electronics
h parameter equivalent network
 Field Effect Transistor
FET
• A Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a three-terminal semiconductor device.

• By appearance JFET and BJT are very similar.

• The output characteristics of FET are controlled by the applied input

voltage and not by the input current

• FET is a unipolar device, this means that the current flowing through it is
only due to one type of carriers i.e. holes or electrons

• However, BJT is a current controlled device and JFET is controlled by

input voltage.

• Most commonly two types of FETs are available.

❖ Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

❖ Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

Junction Field Effect Transistor
 Junction Field Effect Transistor

The functioning of Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) depends upon

the flow of majority carriers (electrons or holes) only.

• Gate − By using diffusion or alloying technique, both sides of N type

bar are heavily doped to create PN junction.

• Source − It is the entry point for majority carriers through which they
enter into the semiconductor bar.

• Drain − It is the exit point for majority carriers through which they leave
the semiconductor bar.

• Channel − It is the area of N type material through which majority

carriers pass from the source to drain.

There are two types of JFETs N-Channel JFET and P-Channel JFET.
 Junction Field Effect Transistor

(A) For Small VDS and VSG = 0

VSG = VP when IDS = 0 and VDS is SMALL

Or

VGS = - VP when ID = 0 and VDS is SMALL

 Junction Field Effect Transistor

(B) When VDS is increased and VSG = 0 (VDS = VDG)

IDS = ID = IDSS ; for VGS = 0 and VDS = - VP

 Junction Field Effect Transistor

Static characteristic Curves

1. Triode region
2. Pinch-off region
 Junction Field Effect Transistor

Static characteristic Curves

1. Triode region

In this region JFET acts as a resistance RDS controlled by VGS

ID = IDSS [2(1- VGS / VP ) ( VDS / - VP ) – ( VDS / VP )2 ]

For small value of VDS

ID = -2 IDSS (1- VGS / VP ) ( VDS / - VP )

RDS = (VDS / ID )| VDS = small = [ 2 IDSS / - VP (1- VGS / VP ) ]-1

 Junction Field Effect Transistor

Static characteristic Curves

2. Pinch-off region (Active Region)

In this region JFET,

VDG = - VP ; and VDS >= VGS – Vp

ID = IDSS (1- VGS / VP )2

 Junction Field Effect Transistor

Static characteristic Curves

2. Boundary Between Pinch-off and Triode Regions

Pinch-off reaches when

VGD = - VP

VDS – VGS = -VP

VDS = VGS -VP

ID = IDSS (VDS / VP )2
 MOSFET
MOSFET

Enhancement Type
 MOSFET

MOSFET

Enhancement Type Depletion Type

 MOSFET

MOSFET
 MOSFET

MOSFET
 MOSFET

MOSFET Switching Characteristics

Turn-on delay time: Time from 10% of the rise of VGS until 10% of the rise of VDS
Rise time: Time from 10% to 90% of the rise of VDS
Turn-off delay time: Time from 90% of the fall of VGS until 90% of the fall of VDS
Fall time: Time from 90% to 10% of the fall of VDS
 TTL

TTL
• The Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) is a logic family made up of
BJTs (bipolar junction transistors).

• The transistor performs two functions like logic as well as amplifying.

• Examples of TTL are logic gates are the 7402 NOR Gate & the 7400
NAND gate.
 TTL

Types of Transistor-Transistor Logic

• Standard TTL
• Fast TTL
• Schottky TTL
• High Power TTL
• Low Power TTL
• Advanced Schottky TTL.
 TTL

Types of Transistor-Transistor Logic

• CMOS and NMOS are two logic families, where CMOS uses both MOS
transistors and PMOS for design and NMOS use only field-effect
transistors for design.

• CMOS is selected over NMOS for the designing of an embedded

system.

• CMOS transmits both logic 0 logic 1 and NMOS only logic 1 i.e, VDD.
 TTL
Characteristics of TTL

1. Fan Out: Number of loads the output of a GATE can drive without
affecting its usual performance.

2. Power Dissipation: It represents the amount of power needed by the

device. It is measured in mW.

3. Propagation Delay: It represents the transition time that elapses

when the input level changes. The delay which occurs for the output to
make its transition is the propagation delay.

4. Noise Margin: It represents the amount of noise voltage allowed at

the input, which doesn’t affect the standard output.
 TTL
Characteristics of TTL
 TTL
Characteristics of TTL

Condition 1:
At least one input is low (that is, 0). Transistor T1 saturates. Thus, the
base voltage of T2 is almost zero. T2 is cut off and forces T3 to cut
off. T4 functions as an emitter follower and couples a high voltage to load.
Output is high (that is Y=1).
Condition 2:
Each input is high. The emitter base junctions of T1 are reverse biased.
The collector base junction of T1 is forward biased. Therefore, T1 is in
reverse active mode. The collector current of T1 flows in reverse direction.
Because this current is flowing in the base of T2, the transistors T2 and
T3 saturate and then output Y is low.
Condition 3:
The circuit is operating under II while one of the inputs becomes low. The
consequent emitter base junction of T1 starts conducting and T1 base
voltage drops to a low value. Thus, T1 is in forward active mode. The high
collector current of T1 shifts the stored charge in T2 and T3 and hence,
T2 and T3 go to cut-off and T1 saturates and then output Y returns to high.
 TTL
Characteristics of TTL
 CMOS
CMOS NAND Gate
 NMOS
NMOS NOR Gate
 Memory
Memory
• A device for storing digital information that is fabricated by
using IC technology is known as semiconductor memory

• Used for the storage of program and data

 Memory
Random Access Memory (RAM)

• It is also called as read write memory or the main memory or

the primary memory.

• The programs and data that the CPU requires during execution of a
program are stored in this memory.

• It is a volatile memory as the data loses when the power is turned off.

• RAM is further classified into two types-

❖ SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)

❖ DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory).
Memory
 Memory
Read Only Memory (ROM)
• Stores crucial information essential to operate the system, like the
program essential to boot the computer.

• It is not volatile.

• Always retains its data.

• Used in embedded systems or where the programming needs no

change.

• Used in calculators and peripheral devices.

• ROM is further classified into 4 types-

1. ROM
2. PROM
3. EPROM
4. EEPROM
 Memory
Types of Read Only Memory (ROM)

PROM (Programmable read-only memory)

• It can be programmed by user.
• Once programmed, the data and instructions in it cannot be changed.

EPROM (Erasable Programmable read only memory)

• It can be reprogrammed.
• To erase data from it, expose it to ultra violet light.
• To reprogram it, erase all the previous data.

EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read only memory)

• The data can be erased by applying electric field, no need of ultra violet
light.
• We can erase only portions of the chip.
Memory
 Electric Electronics
Operational Amplifier (op-amp)
• It a linear Integrated Circuit (IC) having multiple-terminals.

• It is a voltage amplifying device that is designed to be used with

external feedback components such as resistors and capacitors
between its output and input terminals.

• It is a high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input

and usually a single-ended output.

❖ The terminal with a (-) sign is called inverting input terminal

❖ The terminal with (+) sign is called non-inverting input terminal

 Electronics
Op-Amp Operation

• Ideally, an op-amp amplifies the difference between the two input

voltage, also called differential input voltage.

• The output voltage of the op-amp Vout is given by the equation:

Vout = AOL (V+ – V–)

where,
AOL = the open-loop gain of the amplifier.

• In a linear operational amplifier, the output signal is the amplification

factor (A) multiplied by the value of the input signal.
 Electric Electronics
Important electrical parameters
Input offset voltage: It is the voltage that must be applied between the input
terminals of an op-amp to nullify the output.

Input offset current: It is the algebraic difference between the currents into
the (-) input and (+) input.

Input bias current: It is the average of the currents entering into the (-) input
and (+) input terminals of an op-amp.

Input resistance: It is the differential input resistance as seen at either of the

input terminals with the other terminal connected to ground.

Input capacitance: It is the equivalent capacitance that can be measured at

either of the input terminal with the other terminal connected to ground.

Slew rate: It is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage

caused by a step input voltage. The slew rate improves with higher closed loop
gain and DC supply voltage. It is also a function to temperature and generally
decreases with an increase in temperature.
 Electronics
• An op-amp only responds to the difference between the two voltages
irrespective of the individual values at the inputs.

• External resistors or capacitors are often connected to the op-amp in

many ways to form basic circuits including Inverting, Non-Inverting,
Voltage Follower, Summing, Differential, Integrator and Differentiator type
amplifiers.

• An op-amp is easily available in IC packaging, the most common being

the μA-741.
 Electronics
• Pin configuration of 741 Op-amp

Ideal characteristics
Open loop gain = 
Input impedance = 
Output impedance = 0
Bandwidth = 
CMRR = Differential gain/ Common mode gain = 
Slew rate = dV0/dt = 
Output must be zero when both input are zero i.e. zero offset null voltage
and current
Slew rate gives maximum operating frequency = 0.7V/s
Temperature independent
 Electronics
1. Inverting Mode
 Electronics
2. An op amp with negative feedback (a non-inverting amplifier)
 Electronics
3. Summing Amplifier
 Electronics
4. Integrator
 Electronics
5. Differentiator
 Electronics
6. Differential Amplifier
 Electronics
7. Logarithmic Amplifier

8. Exponential Amplifier

9. Source Follower

Also called voltage follower, unity gain amplifier, buffer amplifier or

isolation amplifier.
 Filters
Filter
• In signal processing, a filter is a device or process that removes some
unwanted components or features from a signal

• Three main considerations in designing a filter circuit they are

▪ The response of the pass band must be maximum flatness.

▪ There must be a slow transition from pass band to the stop band.

▪ The ability of the filter to pass signals without any distortions (phase
shifts of the waveforms) within the pass band.

• For maximum flat response the Butterworth filter is designed.

• For steeper transition from pass band to stop band the Chebyshev filter
is designed

• For maximum flat time delay Bessel filter is designed.

Butterworth filter
Filters
• The Butterworth filter is a type of signal processing filter designed to
have a frequency response that is as flat as possible in the passband.

• It is also referred to as a maximally flat magnitude filter.

• The rate of falloff response of the filter depends upon the number of
poles taken in the circuit.

• The pole number will depend on the number of the reactive elements
(i.e. inductors or capacitors used ) in the circuits.

• The amplitude response of nth order Butterworth filter is given as

follows:
Vout / Vin = 1 / √{1 + (f / fc)2n}

n = the number of poles in the circuit.

n increases the flatness of the filter response also increases.
f = operating frequency of the circuit
fc = centre frequency or cut off frequency of the circuit.
 Filters
Butterworth filter
• The flatness of the output response increases as the order of the filter
increases.
• The gain and normalized response of the Butterworth filter for different
orders are given below
 Filters
Chebyshev filter

• Chebyshev filters are analog or digital filters having a steeper roll-

off than Butterworth filters, and have passband ripple (type I)
or stopband ripple (type II).

• Chebyshev filters have the property that they minimize the error
between the idealized and the actual filter characteristic over the range of
the filter, but with ripples in the passband.

• Type I Chebyshev filters are usually referred to as "Chebyshev filters",

while type II filters are usually called "inverse Chebyshev filters".
 Filters
Chebyshev filter
The key features of the Chebyshev filter

• Roll-off: One of the main aspects of the Chebyshev filter is that it has a
steep roll-off.

• Ripple: Although the Chebyshev filter provides a steep roll-off, this is at

the cost of ripple.

• Cut-off frequency: The cut-off frequency of the point at which the

response falls to -3 dB but it does not hold for Chebyshev filters in view of
the in-band ripple. Instead, the cut-off is taken as the point at which the
gain falls to the value of the ripple for the final time.

• Chebyshev filter name: The name of the Chebyshev filter comes from
the Chebyshev polynomials.
 Filters
Chebyshev filter

The gain (or amplitude) response, Gn

Where
ε = ripple factor
ωc is the cut-off frequency
Tn is the Chebychev polynominal of the nth order
 Filters
Chebyshev filter

• The pass-band of the Chebychev filter provides an equi-ripple behaviour.

• The in-band ripple is determined by the ripple factor ε.

• In the passband, the Chebyshev polynomial alternates between -1 and

1 and the gain is given by
 Filters
Chebyshev filter

• The pass-band of the Chebychev filter provides an equi-ripple behaviour.

• The in-band ripple is determined by the ripple factor ε.

• In the passband, the Chebyshev polynomial alternates between -1 and

1 and the gain is given alternate between maxima at G= 1 and minima at
 ADC
ADC Process

There are mainly two steps involves in the process of conversion

• Sampling and Holding
• Quantizing and Encoding
 ADDER
Adder

• An adder is a digital logic circuit in electronics that is extensively used for

the addition of numbers

• A combinational circuit that performs for addition

 ADDER
Half Adder
A half adder is a type of adder, an electronic circuit that performs the addition
of numbers. The half adder is able to add two single binary digits and provide
the output plus a carry value. It has two inputs, called A and B, and two
outputs S (sum) and C (carry)

Sum = A  B

Carry = A . B
 ADDER
Full Adder
Full Adder is the adder which adds three inputs and produces two outputs.
The first two inputs are A and B and the third input is an input carry as C-IN.
The output carry is designated as C-OUT and the normal output is designated
as S which is SUM.
 ADDER
Full Adder

Logical Expression for SUM:

= A’ B’ C-IN + A’ B C-IN’ + A B’ C-IN’ + A B C-IN
= C-IN (A’ B’ + A B) + C-IN’ (A’ B + A B’)
= C-IN  (A  B)
= (1,2,4,7)

Logical Expression for C-OUT:

= A’ B C-IN + A B’ C-IN + A B C-IN’ + A B C-IN
= A B + B C-IN + A C-IN
= (3,5,6,7)
 ADDER
Full Adder
 ADDER
Implementation of Full Adder using Half Adders
 Substractor
Half subtractor

Difference = A  B

Borrow = A B
 Substractor
Full subtractor
 Substractor
Full subtractor
 Comparator
Comparator
• compares the two inputs that are applied to it and produces an output

Types of Comparators
Comparators are of two types : Inverting and Non-inverting

Inverting Comparator
 Comparator
Comparator

Non-Inverting Comparator
 Comparator
Comparator

One bit magnitude comparator

 Parity Generator and Checker
Parity Generator and Checker
• Parity Generator is a combinational logic that generates the parity bit in
the transmitter.

• On the other hand, a circuit that checks the parity in the receiver is called
Parity Checker.

• A combined circuit or device of parity generators and parity checkers

are commonly used in digital systems to detect the single bit errors in the
transmitted data.

Even Parity and Odd Parity

• The sum of the data bits and parity bits can be even or odd.

• In even parity, the added parity bit will make the total number of 1s an
even number

• In odd parity, the added parity bit will make the total number of 1s an
odd number.
 Parity Generator and Checker
Even Parity Generator
 Parity Generator and Checker
Odd Parity Generator

P = A ⊕ (B⊕ C)
 Parity Generator and Checker
Even Parity Checker
 Parity Generator and Checker
Odd Parity Checker

PEC = (A Ex-NOR B) Ex-NOR (C Ex-NOR P)

 Multiplexer and Demultiplexer
Multiplexer and Demultiplexer

• A Multiplexer is a combinational circuit that accept many inputs but gives

only one output (many into one)

• A demultiplexer accepts only one input and gives many outputs (one to
many)
 Multiplexer and Demultiplexer
Multiplexer

Applications
• Communication System
• Telephone Network
• Computer Memory
• Transmission from the Computer System of a Satellite
 Multiplexer and Demultiplexer
Demultiplexer

Applications
• Communication System
• Telephone Network
• Serial to Parallel Converter
 Flip Flops
SR Flip Flops
Truth Table of SR Latch
 Flip Flops
SR Flip Flops
Characteristic table

Excitation table
 Flip Flops
D Flip Flops

Truth table for SR flip flop

Truth table for D flip flop

 Flip Flops
D Flip Flops
Truth table for D flip flop Characteristic table Excitation table
 Flip Flops
JK Flip Flops
Circuit diagram for SR Truth table for SR flip flop Circuit diagram for JK

Truth table for JK flip flop

 Flip Flops
JK Flip Flops
Truth table for JK flip flop Characteristic table Excitation table
 Flip Flops
Master Slave Flip Flops
 Shift Registers
Registers
• It is a group of flip-flops that are used to store a binary number. An n-
bit register had n flip flops and is capable of holding n bits of
information

• A register capable of shifting its binary contents either to the left or the
right is called a shift register. The shift register permits the stored
data to move from a particular location to some other location within
the register.

• The data in a shift register can be shifted in two ways

1. Serial Shifting
2. Parallel Shifting

• The serial shifting method shifts one bit at a time for each clock
pulse in a serial manner.

• The parallel shifting, shifts all the data simultaneously during a single
clock pulse
 Shift Registers
Serial-In Serial-Out Shift Register (SISO)

Serial-In Parallel-Out shift Register (SIPO)

 Shift Registers
Parallel-In Serial-Out Shift Register (PISO)
 Shift Registers
Parallel-In Parallel-Out Shift Register (PIPO)
 Counters
Counters
• A Counter is a device which stores (and sometimes displays) the number of
times a particular event or process has occurred, often in relationship to a
clock signal.

• Counters are used in digital electronics for counting purpose, they can
count specific event happening in the circuit.

• For example, in UP counter a counter increases count for every rising edge
of clock.

• Not only counting, a counter can follow the certain sequence based on our
design like any random sequence 0,1,3,2… .

• They can also be designed with the help of flip flops

 Counters
Counters are broadly divided into two categories

1. Asynchronous counter

2. Synchronous counter
 Counters
1. Asynchronous Counter
• Only first flip flop is driven by main clock and the clock input of rest of the
following flip flop is driven by output of previous flip flops

In this way ripples are generated through Q0,Q1,Q2,Q3 hence it is also called
RIPPLE counter.
 Counters
2. Synchronous Counter
• Synchronous counter has one global clock which drives each flip flop so
output changes in parallel.
• It can operate on higher frequency than asynchronous counter.
 Sequence Generator
Sequence Generator
A circuit which generates a prescribed sequence of bits, in synchronization
with a clock, is referred to as a sequence generator
uses
1] counters.
2] Random bit generators.
3] Prescribed period and sequence generators.
4] Code generator.
 Sequence Generator
Sequence Generator
Generate a sequence of 10110

Identify the no. of flip flop

L<= 2n -1
 7 segment display
7 segment display
• Seven segment displays are the output display device that provide a way
to display information in the form of image or text or decimal numbers
which is an alternative to the more complex dot matrix displays.

• It consists of seven segments of light emitting diodes (LEDs) which is

assembled like numerical 8.
 7 segment display
7 segment display

• The number 8 is displayed when the power is given to all the segments
and if you disconnect the power for ‘g’, then it displays number 0.

• Power (or voltage) at different pins can be applied at the same time, so we
can form combinations of display numerical from 0 to 9.

• Since seven segment displays can not form alphabet like X and Z, so it can
not be used for alphabet and it can be used only for displaying decimal
numerical magnitudes.

• However, seven segment displays can form alphabets A, B, C, D, E, and F,

so they can also used for representing hexadecimal digits.
 7 segment display
7 segment display

The number of segments used by digit: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are

6, 2, 5, 5, 4, 5, 6, 3, 7, and 6
respectively
 7 segment display
Types of Seven Segment Displays:
There are two types of configurations of seven segment displays:
and
1. Common cathode display.
• All the cathode connections of LED segments are connected together to
logic 0 or ground.
• We use logic 1 through a current limiting resistor to forward bias the
individual anode terminals a to g.
 7 segment display
Types of Seven Segment Displays:

2. Common anode display

• All the anode connections of the LED segments are connected together to
logic 1 in common anode seven segment display.

• We use logic 0 through a current limiting resistor to the cathode of a

particular segment a to g.
 SCR
SCR (Thyristor)

• SCR is most popular of thyristor family due to its

Fast switching action, small size and high voltage and current ratings

• It is commonly used in power electronics applications

• SCR has 3 terminals (gate provides control)

4 alternate P and N layers (p-n-p-n) forming
3 layers p-n junctions

• SCR is turned on by applying +ve gate signal, when anode is +ve with
respect to cathode

• SCR is turned off by interrupting anode current

 SCR
SCR (Thyristor)

Working or Modes of Operation of SCR

1. Forward blocking Mode

2. Forward Conduction Mode
3. Reverse Blocking Mode
 SCR
SCR
 SCR
Forward Blocking Mode
• Anode terminal is made positive with respect to cathode while the gate
terminal kept open

• In this state junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased and the junction J2
reverse biased

• Due to this, a small leakage current flows through the SCR.

• Until the voltage applied across the SCR is more than the break over
voltage of it, SCR offers a very high resistance to the current flow.

• Therefore, the SCR acts as a open switch in this mode by blocking

forward current flowing through the SCR as shown in the VI characteristics
curve of the SCR.
Forward Conduction Mode
SCR
Two ways
1. Applying positive pulse to gate terminal

2. By increasing the forward voltage (or voltage across the anode and
cathode) beyond the break over voltage of the SCR.

• Once any one of these methods is applied,

the avalanche breakdown occurs at junction J2. Therefore, the SCR turns
into conduction mode and acts as a closed switch thereby current starts
flowing through it.

• The current at which the SCR turns into conduction mode from blocking
mode is called as latching current (IL)

• The forward current reaches to level at which the SCR returns to blocking
state is called as holding current (IH)
Forward Conduction Mode
SCR
Forward Conduction Mode
SCR
Reverse Blocking Mode
SCR
• Cathode is made positive with respect to anode.

• Then the junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased and J2 is forward

biased.

• This reverse voltage drives the SCR into reverse blocking region results
to flow a small leakage current through it and acts as an open switch.
 SCR
SCR
 SCR
DIAC (Diode for Alternating Current)

• DIACs are also known as a transistor without a base

• DIAC can be either turned on or off for both polarities of voltage (i.e.
positive or negative voltage).

• They also still works when avalanche breakdown occurs.

 SCR
Triac(triode for alternating current)

• A Triac is defined as a three terminal AC switch which is different

from the other silicon controlled rectifiers in the sense that it can
conduct in both the directions
 SCR
LASCR

• Light activated SCR (LASCR) or a Photo SCR is just an ordinary

SCR except that it can also be light triggered
 SCR
Programmable unijunction transistor (PUT)
 Untuned amplifier
Untuned Amplifier
 Power amplifier
Large Signal Amplifiers

• It also known as power amplifiers are capable of providing large

amount of power to the load.

• They are used as last stage in electronic systems.

• It takes the d.c. power supply connected to the output circuit and
converts it into a.c. signal power.

• Output power is controlled by input signal.

 Power amplifier
Performance parameters:
1. Circuit efficiency: Also known as conversion efficiency or overall
efficiency.

2. Distortion: The difference between the output & input of an amplifier is

known as distortion.

1. Harmonic or amplitude distortion – Due to nonlinearity in

transistor
2. Crossover distortion – occurs when transistors not operating in
correct phase with each other

3. Power Dissipation capacity: It’s defined as the ability to dissipate the

heat by the power transistor. Also known as power rating.
 Power amplifier
Classification of power amplifiers:

• Based on Transistor biasing and amplitude of input signal

 Power amplifier
CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIER:
• A power amplifier is called Class A amplifier if the transistor used in the
circuit conducts for fullcycle of the input signal

• Transistor conducts for full 360

• Efficiency is 25% to 50%

 Power amplifier
CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIER:
 Power amplifier
CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIER:
 Power amplifier
CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIER:
 Power amplifier
CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIER:
 Power amplifier
CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIER:
 Power amplifier
CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIER:
 Power amplifier
CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIER:
 Power amplifier
CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIER:
 Power amplifier
CLASS B POWER AMPLIFIER:

• Efficiency is 78.5 %
 Power amplifier
CLASS B POWER AMPLIFIER:
 Power amplifier
CLASS B POWER AMPLIFIER:
 Power amplifier
CLASS AB POWER AMPLIFIER:

• Efficiency is 90 %
 Power amplifier
Tuned amplifier

• A circuit which can select and amplify

• It is employed for the purpose of tuning (i.e. selecting).

• It selects a particular frequency and rejects all other frequencies.

• This selection is done by using a circuit called as Tuned circuit.

• When an amplifier circuit has its load replaced by a tuned circuit,

called Tuned amplifier circuit
 Power amplifier
Tuned amplifier
 Power amplifier
Tuned amplifier
• The tuner circuit is nothing but a LC circuit which is also called as resonant
or tank circuit.

• It selects the frequency.

• A tuned circuit is capable of amplifying a signal over a narrow band of

frequencies that are centered at resonant frequency.

• The frequency at which inductive reactance becomes equal to

capacitive reactance, the circuit behaves as purely. The phenomenon is
known as resonance and the particular frequency is known as resonant
frequency.

• At resonance,
 Power amplifier
Frequency Response

The frequency response curve for a tuned amplifier is similar to that of the
resonance curve of a tuned circuit.
 Power amplifier
Quality factor in Tuned Amplifiers
• The quality factor is given as the ratio of coil impedance(reactance) of
an inductor to its resistance.

• As an inductor along with inductance possesses a small amount of

resistance. Thus, for a better Q factor, it is needed that the resistance must
be low.

• It measures the purity of an inductor and is a unit less quantity

• Q factor is the measure of energy storing efficiency of an inductor

• The resonance curve will show the sharper response for a higher value of
Q. Thus, providing better selectivity
 Power amplifier
Bandwidth of tuned amplifiers

• The bandwidth of a tuned amplifier is defined as that frequency range where

the gain of the amplifier reduces to 70.7% of its highest value

• The Q factor is given by

 Power amplifier
Types of Tuned Amplifiers
• Single tuned
• Double tuned
• Stagger tuned

Double tuned
 Power amplifier
Stagger tuned
• Staggered tuned amplifier definition is an amplifier that is used to
improve the total frequency response of the tuned amplifier.

• These are designed to exhibit an overall response for maximal flatness in

the region of the center frequency

• This amplifier uses tuned circuits to operate in union

 Electric Electronics
Feedback Amplifier:

• The process of injecting a fraction of output energy of some device

back to the input is known as Feedback

• A feedback amplifier generally consists of two parts.

• They are the amplifier and the feedback circuit.

• The feedback circuit usually consists of resistors.

 Electric Electronics
Feedback Amplifier:

• The gain of the amplifier is represented as A and is given by

𝑣0
𝐴=
𝑣𝑖
• The feedback network extracts a voltage Vf = β Vo from the output Vo of
the amplifier
 Electric Electronics
• For Negative feedback

• Let Af be the overall gain (gain with the feedback) of the amplifier

• The equation of gain of the negative feedback amplifier is

• Similarly, the equation of gain of the positive feedback amplifier is

 Electric Electronics
Positive feedback

• The feedback in which the feedback energy is in phase with the input
signal is called positive feedback

• It increases the gain of the amplifier

• It has the disadvantages such as

▪ Increasing distortion
▪ Instability

• It is not recommended for the amplifiers.

• If the positive feedback is sufficiently large, it leads to oscillations, by

which oscillator circuits are formed
 Electric Electronics
Negative Feedback
• The feedback in which the feedback energy is out of phase with the
input is called as negative feedback.

• The resultant feedback voltage Vf is 180o out of phase with the input
signal Vin

• Though the gain of negative feedback amplifier is reduced

• Advantages of negative feedback are

▪ Stability of gain is improved
▪ Reduction in distortion
▪ Reduction in noise
▪ Increase in input impedance
▪ Decrease in output impedance
▪ Increase in the range of uniform application

• Negative feedback is frequently employed in amplifiers

 Bode Plot Analysis
Bode Plot Analysis
• Bode Plot is a graphical method used for design and analysis purpose
of the control system

• The idea of logarithmic scaling was provided by Hendrick W. Bode

• Logarithmic of magnitude and logarithmic of phase angle are

separately plotted for logarithmic values of frequencies

Need
• There is variation in ω from 0 to ∞ for which various values of magnitude
and phase angle are achieved.

• However, it is difficult to accommodate all the values of magnitude and

phase angle on a linear scale.
 Bode Plot Analysis
1. Magnitude Plot:

2. Phase Angle Plot:

 Wien Bridge Oscillator
Wien Bridge Oscillator
 Wien Bridge Oscillator
Wien Bridge Oscillator
• The transistor T1 serves as an oscillator and an amplifier
• Transistor T2 serves as an inverter.
• The inverter operation provides a phase shift of 180o.

• This circuit provides positive feedback through R1C1, C2R2 to the

transistor T1
• Negative feedback through the voltage divider to the input of transistor T2.

• The frequency of oscillations

If R1 = R2 and C1 = C2 = C
Then,
 Wien Bridge Oscillator
Wien Bridge Oscillator

• The oscillator consists of two stages of RC coupled amplifier and a

feedback network.

• The voltage across the parallel combination of R and C is fed to the input
of amplifier 1.

• The net phase shift through the two amplifiers is zero.

 Wien Bridge Oscillator
Wien Bridge Oscillator

• By adding Wien bridge feedback network, the oscillator becomes

sensitive to a particular frequency and hence frequency stability is
achieved.
 Tuned Circuit Oscillators
Tuned Circuit Oscillators

• Tuned circuit oscillators are the circuits that produce oscillations with the
help of tuning circuits.

• The tuning circuits consists of an inductance L and a capacitance C.

• These are also known as LC oscillators, resonant circuit

oscillators or tank circuit oscillators

• The tuned circuit oscillators are used to produce an output with

frequencies ranging from 1 MHz to 500 MHz, hence these are also known
as R.F. Oscillators.

• A BJT or a FET is used as an amplifier with tuned circuit oscillators.

• With an amplifier and an LC tank circuit, we can feedback a signal with

right amplitude and phase to maintain oscillations
 Tuned Circuit Oscillators
Tuned Circuit Oscillators
Depending upon the way the feedback is used in the circuit, the LC
oscillators are divided as the following types.

• Tuned-collector or Armstrong Oscillator

It uses inductive feedback from the collector of a transistor to the base. The
LC circuit is in the collector circuit of the transistor.

• Tuned base Oscillator

▪ It uses inductive feedback.
▪ But the LC circuit is in the base circuit.

• Hartley Oscillator
It uses inductive feedback.

• Colpitts Oscillator
It uses capacitive feedback.

• Clapp Oscillator
It uses capacitive feedback.
 Tuned Circuit Oscillators
Tuned Collector Oscillator
 Tuned Circuit Oscillators
Tuned Base Oscillator
 Tuned Circuit Oscillators
Hartley Oscillator

The equation for frequency of Hartley oscillator is given as

LT is the total cumulatively coupled inductance; L1 and L2 represent

inductances of 1st and 2nd coils; and M represents mutual inductance
 Tuned Circuit Oscillators
Colpitts Oscillator

The equation for frequency of Colpitts oscillator is given as

CT is the total capacitance of C1 and C2 connected in series

 Tuned Circuit Oscillators
Clapp Oscillator

The equation for frequency of Clapp oscillator is given as

Usually, the value of C3 is much smaller than C1 and C2. As a result of this, C is
approximately equal to C3
 Resonant circuit
Resonant circuit
• An electric circuit which has very low impedance at a certain frequency.

• Resonant circuits are often built using an inductor, such as a coil,

connected in parallel to a capacitor

• Resonant circuits are used in radio and television tuners to pick out
broadcast signals of specific frequencies.
 Resonant circuit
Series Resonance Circuit
 Resonant circuit
Parallel Resonance Circuit

when the supply frequency creates

zero phase difference between the
supply voltage and current producing a
resistive circuit
 Resonant circuit
Parallel Resonance Circuit
 Crystal Oscillators
Crystal Oscillators
• Whenever an oscillator is under continuous operation, its frequency
stability gets affected.

• There occur changes in its frequency due to

▪ Power supply variations
▪ Changes in temperature
▪ Changes in load or output resistance

• The principle of crystal oscillators depends upon the Piezo electric effect

• when a potential difference is applied across one of the faces, a mechanical

stress is produced along the other faces called Piezo electric effect

• E.g. Rochelle salt, quartz and tourmaline

 Crystal Oscillators
Crystal Oscillators
• When a piezo electric crystal is subjected to a proper alternating potential,
it vibrates mechanically.

• The amplitude of mechanical vibrations becomes maximum when the

frequency of alternating voltage is equal to the natural frequency of the
crystal.