Water purification

Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals,

biological contaminants, suspended solids, and gases from water. The goal is to
produce water that is fit for specific purposes. Most water is purified and
disinfected for human consumption (drinking water), but water purification
may also be carried out for a variety of other purposes, including medical,
pharmacological, chemical, and industrial applications. The history of water
purification includes a wide variety of methods. The methods used include
physical processes such as filtration, sedimentation, and distillation; biological
processes such as slow sand filters or biologically active carbon; chemical
processes such as flocculation and chlorination; and the use of electromagnetic
radiation such as ultraviolet light. Water purification can reduce the
concentration of particulate matter including suspended particles, parasites,
bacteria, algae, viruses, and fungi as well as reduce the concentration of a
range of dissolved and particulate matter. The standards for drinking water
quality are typically set by governments or by international standards. These
standards usually include minimum and maximum concentrations of
contaminants, depending on the intended use of the water. A visual inspection
cannot determine if water is of appropriate quality. Simple procedures such as
boiling or the use of a household point of use water filter (typically with
activated carbon) are not sufficient for treating all possible contaminants that
may be present in water from an unknown source. Even natural spring water—
considered safe for all practical purposes in the 19th century—must now be
tested before determining what kind of treatment, if any, is needed. Chemical
and microbiological analysis, while expensive, are the only way to obtain the
information necessary for deciding on the appropriate method of purification.
 Sources of water
1. Groundwater: The water emerging from some deep ground water
may have fallen as rain many teens, hundreds, or thousands of years ago. Soil
and rock layers naturally filter the ground water to a high degree of clarity and
often, it does not require additional treatment besides adding chlorine or
chloramines as secondary disinfectants. Such water may emerge as springs,
artesian springs, or may be extracted from boreholes or wells. Deep ground
water is generally of very high bacteriological quality (i.e., pathogenic bacteria
or the pathogenic protozoa are typically absent), but the water may be rich in
dissolved solids, especially carbonates and sulfates of calcium and magnesium.
Depending on the strata through which the water has flowed, other ions may
also be present including chloride, and Bicarbonate. There may be a
requirement to reduce the iron or manganese content of this water to make it
acceptable for drinking, cooking, and laundry use. Primary disinfection may
also be required. Where groundwater recharge is practiced (a process in which
river water is injected into an aquifer to store the water in times of plenty so
that it is available in times of drought), the groundwater may require
additional treatment depending on applicable state and federal regulations.

2. Upland lakes and reservoirs: Typically located in the headwaters of river

systems, upland reservoirs are usually sited above any human habitation and
may be surrounded by a protective zone to restrict the opportunities for
contamination. Bacteria and pathogen levels are usually low, but some
bacteria, protozoa or algae will be present. Where uplands are forested or
peaty, humic acids can colour the water. Many upland sources have low pH
which require adjustment.
3. Rivers, canals and low land reservoirs: Low land surface waters will have a
significant bacterial load and may also contain algae, suspended solids and a
variety of dissolved constituents.
4. Atmospheric water generation is a new technology that can provide high
quality drinking water by extracting water from the air by cooling the air and
thus condensing water vapour.
5. Rainwater harvesting or fog collection which collect water from the
atmosphere can be used especially in areas with significant dry seasons and in
areas which experience fog even when there is little rain.
6. Desalination of seawater by distillation or reverse osmosis.
7. Surface water: Freshwater bodies that are open to the atmosphere and are
not designated as groundwater are termed surface waters.
Treatment
Goals-:

The goals of the treatment are to remove unwanted constituents in the

water and to make it safe to drink or fit for a specific purpose in industry or
medical applications. Widely varied techniques are available to remove
contaminants like fine solids, micro-organisms and some dissolved inorganic
and organic materials, or environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants.
The choice of method will depend on the quality of the water being treated,
the cost of the treatment process and the quality standards expected of the
processed water. The processes below are the ones commonly used in water
purification plants. Some or most may not be used depending on the scale of
the plant and quality of the raw (source) water.
Pretreatment
1. Pumping and containment – The majority of water must be pumped from its
source or directed into pipes or holding tanks. To avoid adding contaminants to
the water, this physical infrastructure must be made from appropriate
materials and constructed so that accidental contamination does not occur.

2. Screening (see also screen filter) – The first step in purifying surface water is
to remove large debris such as sticks, leaves, rubbish and other large particles
which may interfere with subsequent purification steps. Most deep
groundwater does not need screening before other purification steps.

3. Storage – Water from rivers may also be stored in bankside reservoirs for
periods between a few days and many months to allow natural biological
purification to take place. This is especially important if treatment is by slow
sand filters. Storage reservoirs also provide a buffer against short periods of
drought or to allow water supply to be maintained during transitory pollution
incidents in the source river.

4. Pre-chlorination – In many plants the incoming water was chlorinated to

minimise the growth of fouling organisms on the pipe-work and tanks. Because
of the potential adverse quality effects (see chlorine below), this has largely
been discontinued.
PH adjustment:

Pure water has a pH close to 7 (neither alkaline nor acidic). Sea water
can have pH values that range from 7.5 to 8.4 (moderately alkaline). Fresh
water can have widely ranging pH values depending on the geology of the
drainage basin or aquifer and the influence of contaminant inputs (acid rain). If
the water is acidic (lower than 7), lime, soda ash, or caustic soda (sodium
hydroxide) can be added to raise the pH during water purification processes
and is especially common practice for water softening. The choice of chemical
used for raising the pH often depends on the carbonate alkalinity in the water.
Addition of such chemicals increases the carbonate ion concentration, forcing
precipitation of calcium carbonate, and magnesium carbonate at even higher
pH. Ultimately, the water hardness is reduced. For highly acidic waters, forced
draft degasifiers can be an effective way to raise the pH, by stripping dissolved
carbon dioxide from the water.[2] Making the water alkaline helps coagulation
and flocculation processes work effectively and also helps to minimise the risk
of lead being dissolved from lead pipes and from lead solder in pipe fittings.
Sufficient alkalinity also reduces the corrosiveness of water to iron pipes. Acid
(carbonic acid, hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid) may be added to alkaline
waters in some circumstances to lower the pH. Alkaline water (above pH 7.0)
does not necessarily mean that lead or copper from the plumbing system will
not be dissolved into the water. The ability of water to precipitate calcium
carbonate to protect metal surfaces and reduce the likelihood of toxic metals
being dissolved in water is a function of pH, mineral content, temperature,
alkalinity and calcium concentration.
Coagulation and flocculation:

One of the first steps in most conventional water purification processes is the
addition of chemicals to assist in the removal of particles suspended in water.
Particles can be inorganic such as clay and silt or organic such as algae,
bacteria, viruses, protozoa and natural organic matter. Inorganic and organic
particles contribute to the turbidity and colour of water. The addition of
inorganic coagulants such as aluminium sulfate (or alum) or iron (III) salts such
as iron(III) chloride cause several simultaneous chemical and physical
interactions on and among the particles. Within seconds, negative charges on
the particles are neutralised by inorganic coagulants. Also within seconds,
metal hydroxide precipitates of the iron and Aluminium ions begin to form.
These precipitates combine into larger particles under natural processes such
as Brownian motion and through induced mixing which is sometimes referred
to as flocculation. Amorphous metal hydroxides are known as "floc". Large,
amorphous Aluminium and iron (III) hydroxides adsorb and enmesh particles in
suspension and facilitate the removal of particles by subsequent processes of
sedimentation and filtration.

Aluminum hydroxides are formed within a fairly narrow pH range, typically: 5.5
to about 7.7. Iron (III) hydroxides can form over a larger pH range including pH
levels lower than are effective for alum, typically: 5.0 to 8.5 In the literature,
there is much debate and confusion over the usage of the terms coagulation
and flocculation: Where does coagulation end and flocculation begin? In water
purification plants, there is usually a high energy, rapid mix unit process
(detention time in seconds) whereby the coagulant chemicals are added
followed by flocculation basins (detention times range from 15 to 45 minutes)
where low energy inputs turn large paddles or other gentle mixing devices to
enhance the formation of floc. In fact, coagulation and flocculation processes
are ongoing once the metal salt coagulants are added.

Organic polymers were developed in the 1960s as aids to coagulants and, in

some cases, as replacements for the inorganic metal salt coagulants. Synthetic
organic polymers are high molecular weight compounds that carry negative,
positive or neutral charges. When organic polymers are added to water with
particulates, the high molecular weight compounds adsorb onto particle
surfaces and through interparticle bridging coalesce with other particles to
form floc. Poly DADMAC is a popular cationic (positively charged) organic
polymer used in water purification plants.
Sedimentation
Waters exiting the flocculation basin may enter the sedimentation basin,
also called a clarifier or settling basin. It is a large tank with low water
velocities, allowing floc to settle to the bottom. The sedimentation basin is
best located close to the flocculation basin so the transit between the two
processes does not permit settlement or floc break up. Sedimentation basins
may be rectangular, where water flows from end to end, or circular where flow
is from the centre outward. Sedimentation basin outflow is typically over a
weir so only a thin top layer of water— that furthest from the sludge—exits. In
1904, Allen Hazen showed that the efficiency of a sedimentation process was a
function of the particle settling velocity, the flow through the tank and the
surface area of tank. Sedimentation tanks are typically designed within a range
of overflow rates of 0.5 to 1.0 gallons per minute per square foot (or 1250 to
2500 litres per square meter per hour). In general, sedimentation basin
efficiency is not a function of detention time or depth of the basin. Although,
basin depth must be sufficient so that water currents do not disturb the sludge
and settled particle interactions are promoted. As particle concentrations in
the settled water increase near the sludge surface on the bottom of the tank,
settling velocities can increase due to collisions and agglomeration of particles.
Typical detention times for sedimentation vary from 1.5 to 4 hours and basin
depths vary from 10 to 15 feet (3 to 4.5 meters). Lamella clarifiers, inclined flat
plates or tubes can be added to traditional sedimentation basins to improve
particle removal performance. Inclined plates and tubes drastically increase
the surface area available for particles to be removed in concert with Hazen's
original theory. The amount of ground surface area occupied by a
sedimentation basin with inclined plates or tubes can be far smaller than a
conventional sedimentation basin
Filtration-

After separating most floc, the water is filtered as the final step to
remove remaining suspended particles and unsettled floc.

Rapid sand filters-

Cutaway
The most common type of filter is a rapid sand filter. Water moves
vertically downward through sand which often has a layer of activated carbon
or anthracite coal above the sand. The top layer removes organic compounds,
which contribute to taste and odour. The space between sand particles is
larger than the smallest suspended particles, so simple filtration is not enough.
Most particles pass through surface layers but are trapped in pore spaces or
adhere to sand particles. Effective filtration extends into the depth of the filter.
This property of the filter is key to its operation: if the top layer of sand were
to block all the particles, the filter would quickly clog

To clean the filter, water is passed quickly upward through the filter,
opposite the normal direction (called back flushing or backwashing) to remove
embedded or unwanted particles. Prior to this step, compressed air may be
blown up through the bottom of the filter to break up the compacted filter
media to aid the backwashing process; this is known as air scouring. This
contaminated water can be disposed of, along with the sludge from the
sedimentation basin, or it can be recycled by mixing with the raw water
entering the plant although this is often considered poor practice since it re-
introduces an elevated concentration of bacteria into the raw water. Some
water treatment plants employ pressure filters. This work on the same
principle as rapid gravity filters, differing in that the filter medium is enclosed
in a steel vessel and the water is forced through it under pressure.
Advantages:
Filters out much smaller particles than paper and sand filters can. Filters
out virtually all particles larger than their specified pore sizes. They are quite
thin and so liquids flow through them fairly rapidly. They are reasonably strong
and so can withstand pressure differences across them of typically 2–5
atmospheres. They can be cleaned (back flushed) and reused.
Removal of ions and other dissolved substances
Ultrafiltration membranes use polymer membranes with chemically formed
microscopic pores that can be used to filter out dissolved substances avoiding
the use of coagulants. The type of membrane media determines how much
pressure is needed to drive the water through and what sizes of micro
organisms can be filtered out.

Ion exchange: Ion-exchange systems use ion-exchange resin- or zeolite-

packed columns to replace unwanted ions. The most common case is water
softening consisting of removal of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions replacing them with
benign (soap friendly) Na+ or K+ ions. Ion-exchange resins are also used to
remove toxic ions such as nitrite, lead, mercury, arsenic and many others.

Precipitate softening: 13.12–13.58 Water rich in hardness (calcium and

magnesium ions) is treated with lime (calcium oxide) and/or soda-ash (sodium
carbonate) to precipitate calcium carbonate out of solution utilising the
common-ion effect. Electrode ionization:[9] Water is passed between a
positive electrode and a negative electrode. Ion-exchange membranes allow
only positive ions to migrate from the treated water toward the negative
electrode and only negative ions toward the positive electrode. High purity
deionised water is produced continuously, similar to ion-exchange treatment.
Complete removal of ions from water is possible if the right conditions are
met. The water is normally pre-treated with a reverse osmosis unit to remove
non-ionic organic contaminants, and with gas transfer membranes to remove
carbon dioxide. A water recovery of 99% is possible if the concentrate stream
is fed to the RO inlet.

Disinfection-

Disinfection is accomplished both by filtering out harmful micro-

organisms and by adding disinfectant chemicals. Water is disinfected to kill any
pathogens which pass through the filters and to provide a residual dose of
disinfectant to kill or inactivate potentially harmful microorganisms in the
storage and distribution systems. Possible pathogens include viruses, bacteria,
including Salmonella, Cholera, Campylobacter and Shigella, and protozoa,
including Giardia lamblia and other cryptosporidia. After the introduction of
any chemical disinfecting agent, the water is usually held in temporary storage
– often called a contact tank or clear well – to allow the disinfecting action to
complete.

Ultraviolet disinfection

Ultraviolet light (UV) is very effective at inactivating cysts, in low turbidity

water. UV light's disinfection effectiveness decreases as turbidity increases, a
result of the absorption, scattering, and shadowing caused by the suspended
solids. The main disadvantage to the use of UV radiation is that, like ozone
treatment, it leaves no residual disinfectant in the water; therefore, it is
sometimes necessary to add a residual disinfectant after the primary
disinfection process. This is often done through the addition of chloramines,
discussed above as a primary disinfectant. When used in this manner,
chloramines provide an effective residual disinfectant with very few of the
negative effects of chlorination.
Over 2 million people in 28 developing countries use Solar Disinfection for daily
drinking water treatment.

Safety and controversies

In April 2007, the water supply of Spencer, Massachusetts in the United States
of America became contaminated with excess sodium hydroxide (lye) when its
treatment equipment malfunctioned.
Many municipalities have moved from free chlorine to chloramines as a
disinfection agent. However, chloramines appear to be a corrosive agent in
some water systems. Chloramines can dissolve the "protective" film inside
older service lines, leading to the leaching of lead into residential spigots. This
can result in harmful exposure, including elevated blood lead levels. Lead is a
known neurotoxin.

Water chlorination
 Manual-control chlorinator for the
liquefaction of chlorine for water
purification, early 20th century. From
Chlorination of Water by Joseph Race,
1918.

John Snow was the first to successfully use chlorine to disinfect the
water supply in Soho that had helped spread the cholera outbreak. William
Soper also used chlorinated lime to treat the sewage produced by typhoid
patients in 1879. In a paper published in 1894, Moritz Traube formally
proposed the addition of chloride of lime (calcium hypochlorite) to water to
render it "germ free." Two other investigators confirmed Traube's findings and
published their papers in 1895.[42] Early attempts at implementing water
chlorination at a water treatment plant were made in 1893 in Hamburg,
Germany and in 1897 the city of Maidstone, England was the first to have its
entire water supply treated with chlorine.
Permanent water chlorination began in 1905, when a faulty slow sand filter
and a contaminated water supply led to a serious typhoid fever epidemic in
Lincoln, England.[44] Alexander Cruickshank Houston used chlorination of the
water to stem the epidemic. His installation fed a concentrated solution of
chloride of lime to the water being treated. The chlorination of the water
supply helped stop the epidemic and as a precaution, the chlorination was
continued until 1911 when a new water supply was instituted.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this water purification project successfully demonstrated

the importance of clean water and the effectiveness of various purification
methods. Through experimentation and analysis, we observed that filtration,
chemical treatment, and boiling are effective techniques for removing
contaminants, ensuring safe and potable water.
The results emphasize the significance of water purification in improving public
health, preventing waterborne diseases, and promoting environmental
sustainability. This project also highlights the need for continued innovation in
water treatment technologies to address global water scarcity and pollution
challenges.

Moving forward, further research and development can focus on cost-

effective, eco-friendly purification methods that can be implemented in
remote or resource-limited areas. By raising awareness and adopting efficient
water purification practices, we can contribute to a healthier and more
sustainable future.

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