DDL (Data Definition Language) Commands in Oracle

DDL commands are used to define, modify, and manage database objects such as tables,
indexes, and schemas. The key DDL commands in Oracle are:

1. CREATE – Used to create database objects

Example: Creating a Table
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEES (
EMP_ID NUMBER PRIMARY KEY,
EMP_NAME VARCHAR2(50),
HIRE_DATE DATE,
SALARY NUMBER(10,2)
);

✅ Creates a table named EMPLOYEES with columns.

2. ALTER – Used to modify an existing object

Example: Adding a Column
ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEES ADD (DEPARTMENT_ID NUMBER);

✅ Adds a new column DEPARTMENT_ID to the EMPLOYEES table.

Example: Modifying a Column

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEES MODIFY (SALARY NUMBER(12,2));

✅ Changes the data type and size of the SALARY column.

Example: Dropping a Column

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEES DROP COLUMN DEPARTMENT_ID;

✅ Removes DEPARTMENT_ID from the table.

3. DROP – Used to delete database objects permanently

Example: Dropping a Table
DROP TABLE EMPLOYEES;

✅ Deletes the EMPLOYEES table and all its data permanently.

4. TRUNCATE – Used to delete all rows from a table

Example: Truncating a Table
TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEES;

✅ Deletes all rows from EMPLOYEES, but keeps the structure intact.
⚠️ Unlike DELETE, you cannot rollback a TRUNCATE.

5. RENAME – Used to rename a database object

Example: Renaming a Table
RENAME EMPLOYEES TO STAFF;

✅ Changes the table name from EMPLOYEES to STAFF.

6. COMMENT – Used to add comments to database objects

Example: Adding a Comment to a Table
COMMENT ON TABLE EMPLOYEES IS 'Stores employee details';

✅ Adds a comment to the EMPLOYEES table.

Example: Adding a Comment to a Column

COMMENT ON COLUMN EMPLOYEES.SALARY IS 'Stores employee salary';

✅ Adds a comment to the SALARY column in EMPLOYEES.

Key Differences Between DDL and DML

DML (Data Manipulation

Feature DDL (Data Definition Language)
Language)
Purpose Defines structure of database objects Manipulates data inside tables
Commands CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE, RENAME, SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
COMMENT
Rollback ❌ No rollback (auto-commit) ✅ Can rollback (except TRUNCATE)
DML (Data Manipulation Language) Commands in Oracle SQL
DML commands in SQL are used to manipulate and manage data in database tables. The main
DML commands in Oracle SQL are:

1. INSERT – Adds new records to a table

2. UPDATE – Modifies existing records in a table
3. DELETE – Removes records from a table
4. MERGE – Inserts, updates, or deletes records based on conditions

1. INSERT Command
The INSERT statement is used to add new rows to a table.

Syntax:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3, ...)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

Example:
INSERT INTO employees (employee_id, first_name, last_name, salary,
department_id) VALUES (101, 'John', 'Doe', 50000, 10);

Inserting Multiple Rows (Oracle 11g and later)

INSERT ALL
INTO employees (employee_id, first_name, last_name, salary,
department_id) VALUES (102, 'Jane', 'Smith', 55000, 20)
INTO employees (employee_id, first_name, last_name, salary,
department_id) VALUES (103, 'Mike', 'Brown', 60000, 30) SELECT * FROM dual;
 How to insert values into table by using & symbol in Oracle
at runtime:

You can use the & symbol in Oracle SQL to take input values at runtime when inserting records
into a table. Here’s how you can do it:

Optional
General Syntax
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3)
VALUES (&value1, '&value2', TO_DATE('&value3', 'YYYY-MM-DD'));

Example: Inserting Employee Data

Assume you have a table named EMPLOYEES with columns EMP_ID (NUMBER), EMP_NAME
(VARCHAR2), and HIRE_DATE (DATE).

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEES (EMP_ID, EMP_NAME, HIRE_DATE)

VALUES (&emp_id, '&emp_name', TO_DATE('&hire_date', 'YYYY-MM-DD'));

How It Works

1. When you run the query, Oracle will prompt you to enter values for:
o &emp_id → Example: 101
o &emp_name → Example: John Doe
o &hire_date → Example: 2024-02-01
2. The TO_DATE('&hire_date', 'YYYY-MM-DD') ensures the date is correctly formatted
before insertion. Last executed
3. The record gets inserted into the table. statement in the Buffer

For inserting multiple rows at runtime, we can use / symbol at SQL prompt
after insertion of first record, the prompt will repeatedly ask data for insertion
In Oracle SQL, you can use the & symbol to accept user input at runtime, and to insert a date into
a table, you should use the TO_DATE function to ensure the correct format. Here’s how you can
do it:

Example

Assume you have a table named EMPLOYEES with a column HIRE_DATE of type DATE:

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEES (EMP_ID, EMP_NAME, HIRE_DATE)

VALUES (&emp_id, '&emp_name', TO_DATE('&hire_date', 'YYYY-MM-DD'));

Steps

1. When executing the query, Oracle will prompt you to enter values for &emp_id,
&emp_name, and &hire_date.
2. Enter the date in the format YYYY-MM-DD (or another expected format).
3. Oracle will convert the input string into a valid DATE format using TO_DATE.

Alternative Date Formats

If your date format is different, adjust the TO_DATE function accordingly:

 TO_DATE('&hire_date', 'DD-MON-YYYY') → If you enter 01-JAN-2025

 TO_DATE('&hire_date', 'MM/DD/YYYY') → If you enter 02/01/2025
2. UPDATE Command
The UPDATE statement modifies existing records in a table.

Syntax:
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
WHERE condition;

Example:
UPDATE employees
SET salary = salary + 5000
WHERE department_id = 10;

3. DELETE Command
The DELETE statement removes one or more records from a table.

Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

Example:
DELETE FROM employees
WHERE employee_id = 101;

Deleting All Rows from a Table (With WHERE Condition)

DELETE FROM employees;

⚠️ Note: If WHERE is omitted, all rows will be deleted, but the table structure remains.
TCL (Transaction Control Language)
TCL (Transaction Control Language) commands manage transactions in Oracle Database. They
ensure data consistency and integrity during operations.

TCL Commands:
1. COMMIT – Saves all changes made by the transaction.
2. ROLLBACK – Reverts all changes since the last COMMIT.
3. SAVEPOINT – Creates a temporary save point to roll back to a specific point in a
transaction.

1. COMMIT Command
The COMMIT statement saves all changes made during the current transaction permanently in the
database.

Syntax:
COMMIT;

Example:
UPDATE employees SET salary = salary + 5000 WHERE department_id = 10;
COMMIT; -- Changes are saved permanently

✅ Once COMMIT is executed, changes cannot be undone.

2. ROLLBACK Command
The ROLLBACK statement undoes all changes made in the current transaction since the last
COMMIT.

Syntax:
ROLLBACK;

Example:
UPDATE employees SET salary = salary + 5000 WHERE department_id = 10;
ROLLBACK; -- Reverts salary changes back to original

✅ After ROLLBACK, the table data is restored to its previous state.

3. SAVEPOINT Command
The SAVEPOINT statement allows rolling back part of a transaction instead of the entire
transaction.

Syntax:
SAVEPOINT savepoint_name;

Example:
UPDATE employees SET salary = salary + 5000 WHERE employee_id = 101;
SAVEPOINT before_bonus;

UPDATE employees SET salary = salary + 3000 WHERE employee_id = 102;

ROLLBACK TO before_bonus; -- Undo the second update, but keep the first

COMMIT; -- Save the first update permanently

✅ ROLLBACK TO savepoint_name; reverts changes only up to that savepoint.

✅ The COMMIT statement will erase all savepoints.

Practical Example Using All TCL Commands

-- Start a transaction
UPDATE employees SET salary = salary + 5000 WHERE employee_id = 101;
SAVEPOINT sp1;

UPDATE employees SET salary = salary + 3000 WHERE employee_id = 102;

SAVEPOINT sp2;

UPDATE employees SET salary = salary + 2000 WHERE employee_id = 103;

-- Rollback to sp2 (Undo last update but keep previous ones)

ROLLBACK TO sp2;

-- Commit changes up to sp2

COMMIT;
What Happens?

 Employee 101 gets a 5000 salary increase. ✅

 Employee 102 gets a 3000 salary increase. ✅
 Employee 103 does not get a salary increase (rolled back). ❌
 The COMMIT ensures changes up to sp2 are permanent. 🔒