Saliruyn hY

CE7000E: REMOTE SENSING &GIS (Open Electlve ll)

B.Tech. Civil Engg. IV Year I Sem. L TIPID C
3 O/0/0 3
Course Objectives: The objectives of the course are to
Know the concepts of Remote Sensing, its interpreting Techniques and concepts of Digital
images
know the concept of Geographical Information System (GIS), coordinate system GlS Data and
its types
Understand the students managing the spatial Data Using GIS.
Understand Implementation of GIS interface for practical usage.
Course Outcomes: After the completion of the course student should be able to:
Describe different concepts and terms used in Remote Sensing and its data
Understand the Data conversion and Process in different coordinate systems of GIS interface
Evaluate the accuracy of Data and implementing a GIS
Understand the applicability of RS and GIS for various applications
UNIT -I
Concepts of Remote Sensing Basics of remote sensing- elements involved in remote sensing.
electromagnetic spectrum, remote sensing terminology & units, energy resources, energy interactions
with earth surface features &atmosphere, atmospheric effects, satellite orbits, Sensor Resolution, types
of sensors. Remote Sensing Platforms and Sensors, IRS satellites.
Remote Sensing Data Interpretation Visual interpretation techniques, basic elements, converging
evidence, interpretation for terrain evaluation, spectral properties of soil, water and vegetation.
Concepts of Digital image processing, image enhancements, qualitative & quantitative analysis and
pattern recognition, classification techniques and accuracy estimation.

UNIT- I:
Introduction to GIS: Introduction, History of GIS, GIS Components, GIS Applications in Real life, The
Nature of geographic data, Maps, Types of maps, Map scale, Types of scale, Map and Globe, Co
ordinate systems, Map projections, Map transformation, Geo-referencing.

UNIT- II:
Spatial Database Management System: Introduction: Spatial DBMS, Data storage. Database
structure models, database management system, entity-relationship model, normalization
Data models and data structures: Introduction, GIS Data model, vector data structure, raster data
structure, attribute data, geo-database and metadata,

UNIT- IV:
Spatial Data input and Editing: Data input methods - keyboard entry, digitization, scanning.
conversion of existing data, remotely sensed data, errors in data input, Data accuracy, Micro and Macro
Components of accuracy, sources of error in GIS.
Spatial Analysis:Introduction, topology,spatial analysis, vector data analysis, Network analysis, raster
data analysis, Spatial data interpolation techniques

UNIT- V: Implementing a GIS and Appllcations

Implementing a GIS: Awareness, developing system requirements, evaluation of alternative systems,
decision making using GIS
Applications of GIS
GIS based road network planning, Mineral mapping using GIS, Shortest path detection using GIS,
Hazard Zonation using remote sensing and GIS, GIS for solving multi criteria problems., GIS for
business applications.
TEXT BOOKS
1 Remote Sensing and GIS by Basudeb Bhatta, Oxford University Press, 2nd Edition, 2011.
2. Introduction to Geographic Information systems by Kang-tsung Chang, McGraw Hill
Education (Indian Edition), 7th Edition, 2015.
3. Fundamentals of Geographic Information systems by Michael N. Demers, 4" Edition, Wiey
Publishers, 2012.

REFERENCE BOOKS
1 Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation by Thomas M. Lillesand and Ralph W. Kiefer,
Wiley Publishers, 7th Edition, 2015.1
2. Geographic Information systems - An Introduction by Tor Bernhardsen, Wiley India
Publication, 3rd Edition, 2010.
3. Advanced Surveying: Total Station, GIS and Remote Sensing by Satheesh Gopi, R. Sathi
Kumar, N. Madhu, Pearson Education, 1st Edition,2007.
4 Textbook of Remote Sensing and Geographical Information systems by M. Anji Reddy.
 Remote Sensing- Unit: 1

Chapter
1: Remote
Sensing

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Chapter 1:

This chapter briefly discusses the basics of various techniques, viz. the remote sensing,
the digital image processing, visual Interpretation and delineation using Geographical
Information System (GIS) domain

: Remote Sensing:

“Remote sensing is defined as the science and art of obtaining information about an
object, area, or phenomenon through the analyses of data acquired by the sensor that is
not in direct contact with the target of investigation” (Schultz and England, 2000; Ritchie
and Rango, 1996). This can be done by the use of either recording or real-time sensing
device(s) mounted on aircraft, spacecraft, satellite, buoy, or ship. During last forty years,
space travel has been giving humanity new opportunities, not only to peer into the depths
of the cosmos, but also to look at the length and breadth of our own world. Remote sensing
enables us to acquire information about a phenomenon, object or surface while at a
distance from it. More than just a source of pleasing pictures, these sophisticated
techniques now allow scientists to understand the Earth in ways we never before dreamed.
From 1960 onwards, since the beginning of spaceflight, an ever-growing body of
information is being gathered using space-based remote sensing. Agriculture, meteorology,
oceanography, ecology, cartography, botany, geomorphology and geology are just a few of
the disciplines, which have been transformed by this technology. Some of the most
important environmental issues of our time are only becoming understood because of vast
networks of remote sensing devices and data analysis systems. In practice, remote sensing
is the standoff collection through the use of a variety of devices for gathering information
on a given object or area. The remote sensing is a multi-disciplinary science, w h i c h
includes a combination of various disciplines such as

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Optics, spectroscopy, photography, computers, electronics and telecommunication, etc. All

these technologies are integrated to act as one complete system in itself, known as Remote
Sensing. In the decades to come, remote sensing will be a key tool for making critical
decisions affecting the Earth and its resources.
In a remote sensing system, number of components work as links and each one is
important for successful operation. They are listed below (figure 3.1).

 Emission of electromagnetic radiation, or EMR

 Transmission of energy from the source to the surface of the earth, interaction
with the atmosphere as well as absorption and scattering
 Interaction of EMR with the earth’s surface: absorption, reflection and emission
 Transmission of energy from the surface to the remote sensor
 Sensor/detector data output
 Data transmission, processing and analysis

Figure 3.1: Different stages in Remote sensing and data acquisition

(Source: http://www.ansp.org/museum/kye/tech_environment/2001_remote_sensing.php)

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: Basic components of Remote Sensing:

The sun is the major source of energy, radiation and illumination. At any given moment,
our sun is bombarding the earth with a variety of wavelengths of EMR, including visible
light, infrared, radio and microwaves. Detection and discrimination of surface features
means detecting and recording of radiant energy reflected or emitted by surface (Joseph,
2004; Lillesand and Kiefer, 1987; 2000). Different features return different amount and
kind of energy in different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum, incident upon it. This
unique property depends on the property of material (structural, chemical and physical),
surface roughness, angle of incidence, intensity and wavelength of radiant energy (Elachi,
1987). Everything in nature has its own unique distribution of reflected, emitted and
absorbed radiation. These spectral characteristics, if ingeniously exploited, can be used to
distinguish one thing from another or to obtain information about shape, size and other
physical and chemical properties. Because the emission and reflection of many different
types of EMR can be detected by instruments, they can also be used for remote sensing.
Thus, to understand remote sensing, it is important to first understand the basics of EMR.

: Electromagnetic Radiation:

Electromagnetic radiation is one of the fundamental forms of energy in the universe. EMR
is a dynamic form of energy that propagates as wave motion at a velocity of light,
I.e. C=3X1010 m/s. Electromagnetic energy radiates in accordance with the basic wave
theory. This theory describes the EM energy as traveling in a harmonic sinusoidal fashion
at the velocity of light.
Here, c = vλ ........................................................................................................................3.1
Where, v is frequency, λ is wavelength and c is velocity
Although many characteristics of EM energy are easily described by wave theory,

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Figure 3.2: An electromagnetic wave. Includes electric wave (E) and magnetic wave
(M) at right angles, both perpendiculars to the direction of propogation. (Source:
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/resource/tutor/fundam/index_e.php)

another theory known as particle theory offers insight into how electromagnetic energy
interacts with matter (figure 3.2). It suggests that EMR is composed of many discrete units
called photons/quanta. The energy of quantum is:

Q = h c/λ........................................................................................................................... 3.2
Where Q is the energy of quantum, h is plank’s constant

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Hence, from equation 3.1

Q = h cv ............................................................................................................................ 3.3

: Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic energy is the energy source required to transmit information from the
target to the sensor. A crucial medium is described as an electromagnetic spectrum. Many
of the basic forms of energy in the universe are related as part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. On this spectrum, many forms exist that describe energy in a specific region of
the electromagnetic spectrum. These are visible light, radio waves, microwaves, infrared,
UV rays, x-rays and gamma rays (figure 3.3).

Fig 3.3: Electromagnetic spectrum

(Source: http://hcgl.eng.ohio-state.edu/~ceg603/handouts/IntroRemoteSensing.pdf)

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This spectrum is an overview of the continuum of electromagnetic energy from extremely

short wavelengths (cosmic gamma rays) to extremely long wavelengths (radio and
television waves). Note that as the wavelengths of energy decrease, the frequency
increases. These divisions are not absolute and definite; overlapping may occur (table 3.1).

Table 3.1: Major regions of the electromagnetic spectrum

Region Name Wavelength Comments

Entirely absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere

Gamma Ray < 0.03 nanometers
and not available for remote sensing.

0.03 to 30 Entirely absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere

X-ray
nanometers and not available for remote sensing.

0.03 to 0.4 Wavelengths from 0.03 to 0.3 micrometers

Ultraviolet
micrometers absorbed by ozone in the Earth's atmosphere.

Photographic 0.3 to 0.4 Available for remote sensing the Earth. Can be
Ultraviolet micrometers imaged with photographic film.

0.4 to 0.7 Available for remote sensing the Earth. Can be

Visible
micrometers imaged with photographic film.

Available for remote sensing the Earth. Near

0.7 to 3.0
Reflected Infrared Infrared 0.7 to 0.9 micrometers. Can be imaged
micrometers
with photographic film.
Available for remote sensing the Earth. This
3.0 to 14 wavelength cannot be captured with
Thermal Infrared
micrometers photographic film. Instead, sensors are used to
Image this wavelength band.
Longer wavelengths of this band can pass
0.1 to 100 through clouds, fog, and rain. Images using this
Microwave or Radar
centimeters band can be made with sensors that actively
emit microwaves.

Not normally used for remote sensing the

Radio > 100 centimeters
Earth.

(Source: http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/2e.html)

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: Electromagnetic radiation quantities

 Radiant energy (Q) is the energy carried by EMR. Radiant energy causes the
detector element of the sensor to respond to EMR in some appropriate manner.
Unit of Radiant Energy Q is Joule.

 Radiant Flux (Φ) (Phi) is the time rate of the flow of radiant energy. Unit of
Radiant flux is Joule/Second or Watt (W).

 Irradiance (E) is the Radiant flux intercepted by a plane surface per unit area of
the surface. It arrives at the surface from all directions within a hemisphere over the
surface. Unit of Irradiance E is W/m2 or Wm-2 (Watt per square meter).

 Radiance (L) is defined as the radiant flux per unit solid angle leaving an extended
source in a given direction per unit-projected area of the source in that direction.
The concept of radiance is intended to correspond to the concept of brightness. The
projected area in a direction, which makes an` angle θ (Theta) with the normal to
the surface of area A is A cosθ. Unit for Radiance is Wm-2sr-1.

 Spectral Reflectance (ρ(λ)) is the ratio of reflected energy to incident energy as a

function of wavelength.

 Spectral Signature are the values of the spectral reflectance of objects averaged
over different, well defined wavelength intervals comprise the spectral signature
of the objects or features by which they can be distinguished.

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: Interaction of EMR with atmosphere and earth surface

The sun is the source of radiation and electromagnetic radiation (EMR) from the sun that is
reflected by the earth and detected by the satellite or aircraft-borne sensor must pass
through the atmosphere twice, once on its journey from the sun to the earth and once after
being reflected by the surface of the earth back to the sensor. Interactions of the direct solar
radiation and reflected radiation from the target with the atmospheric constituents interfere
with the process of remote sensing and are called as “Atmospheric Effects”.

The atmospheric constituents scatter and absorb the radiation, modify the radiation
reflected from the target by attenuating it. Both scattering and absorption vary in their
effect from one part of the spectrum to the other. The solar energy is subjected to
modifications by several physical processes as it passes the atmosphere, viz. scattering,
absorption and refraction.

 Atmospheric Scattering: Scattering is the redirection of EMR by particles

suspended in the atmosphere or by larger molecules of atmospheric gases or water
vapor. The amount of scattering depends upon the size and abundance of particles,
the wavelength of radiation and depth of the atmosphere through which the energy
is traveling which varies both in time and over season, thus scattering will be
uneven spatially and will vary from time to time. Scattering reduces image contrast
and changes spectral signature of ground objects as seen by the sensor.

 Atmospheric Absorption: The gas molecules present in the atmosphere strongly

absorb the EMR passing through the atmosphere in certain spectral bands. Mainly
three gases are responsible for most of the absorption of solar radiation, viz. ozone,
carbon dioxide and water vapor. Absorption relatively reduces the amount of light
that reaches our eye making the scene look relatively duller.

 Atmospheric Windows: The atmosphere selectively transmits energy of certain

wavelengths. The spectral bands for which the atmosphere is relatively

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Transparent are known as “Atmospheric Windows”. In the visible part transmission

is mainly effected by ozone absorption and by molecular scattering (figure 3.4).

 Refraction: The phenomenon of refraction that is bending of light at the contact

between two media also occurs in the atmosphere as the light passes through the
atmospheric layers of varied clarity, humidity and temperature.

Fig 3.4: Spectral characteristics of energy sources, atmospheric effects and sensing
systems wavelength scale are logarithmic.
(Source: www.ucalgary.ca/GEOG/virtual/remoteintro.html)

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Radiation from the sun, when incident upon the earth’s surface, is reflected by the surface,
transmitted into the surface or absorbed and emitted by the surface. The EMR, on the
interaction, experiences a number of changes in magnitude, direction, wavelength,
polarization and phase. These changes are detected by the remote sensor and enable the
interpreter to obtain useful information about the object of interest. The remotely sensed
data contain both spatial information (size, shape and orientation) and spectral information
(tone, colour and spectral signature). The spectral band from 0.3 μm to 3 μm is known as
the reflective region. In this band, the radiation sensed by the sensor is that due to the sun,
reflected by the earth’s surface.

 Reflection: Of all the interactions in the reflective region, surface reflections are
the most useful and revealing in remote sensing applications. Reflection occurs
when a ray of light is redirected as it strikes a non-transparent surface. The
reflection intensity depends on the surface refractive index, absorption coefficient
and the angles of incidence and reflection.

 Transmission: Transmission of radiation occurs when radiation passes through a

substance without significant attenuation. For a given thickness, or depth of a
substance, the ability of a medium to transmit energy is measured as transmittance
(τ). τ = transmitted radiation/incident radiation

: Data detection and output:

The most important component of a remote sensing is the sensor/detector, which, records
the variation of radiant energy reflected or emitted by objects or surface material.
Different types of sensors are sensitive to different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The function of recording system is to convert the energy detected by sensor into a form,
which can be perceived. This is done by dividing the incoming energy by beam splitters
and filters into different wavelength bands and then converting energy in each

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Wavelength band into electrical signal. The electrical signal is processed to give
radiometric data for each band, which is recorded in digital format.

: Remote Sensing Systems:

The common remote sensing systems are of two types, Imaging (image forming) and Non-
Imaging (nonimage forming). Image-forming systems are again of two types, framing type
and scanning type. In scanning type, the information is acquired sequentially from the
surface in bits of picture elements or pixels, point-by-point and line-by-line, which may be
arranged after acquisition into a frame format.

Remote sensing can be either passive or active. ACTIVE systems have their own source of
energy such as RADAR, whereas the PASSIVE systems depend upon external source of
illumination such as sun for remote sensing.

: Platforms and Sensors:

The information flows from an object to a sensor in the form of radiation transmitted
through the atmosphere. For a sensor to collect and record energy reflected or emitted from
a target or surface, it must reside on a stable platform away from the target or surface being
observed. Based on its altitude above earth surface, platforms can be classified as ground-
borne, air-borne and space-borne.
Space-borne platforms are in space, moving in their orbits around the earth. It is through
these space-borne platforms, we get enormous amount of remote sensing data. Depending
on their altitude and orbit, these platforms may be divided in two categories:

 Geostationary satellites: An equatorial west to east satellite orbiting the earth at

an altitude at which it makes one revolution in 24 hours, synchronous with the
earth’s rotation, hence it gives continuous coverage over the same area day and
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Night. These are mainly used for communication and meteorological applications,
for e.g. the INSAT satellites.

 Polar orbiting or Sun-synchronous satellites: A satellite with inclined north-

south orbit track westward at a rate such that it covers each area of the world at a
constant time of the day called the local sun time as the satellite moves from north
to south. This ensures the similar illumination conditions while acquiring image
over a particular area over a series of days (figure 3.5). On the descending pass
from north to south, the satellite travels on the sun lit side of the earth, while on
ascending pass from south to north it travels on the shadowed side of the earth.
Through these satellites, the entire globe is covered on regular basis and gives
repetitive coverage on periodic basis. All remote sensing resources satellites may
be grouped in this category for e.g. IRS series.

Fig 3.5: Sun synchronous satellites orbiting earth

(Source: http://www.newmediastudio.org/DataDiscovery/Hurr_ED_Center/Satellites_and
_Sensors/Polar Orbits/Polar_Orbits.html)

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Sensor is the device that gathers energy (EMR or others), converts it into a signal and
presents it in a form suitable for obtaining information about the target under investigation.
Sensors used for remote sensing can be broadly classified as those operating in Optical
Infrared (OIR) region and those operating in microwave region. OIR and microwave
sensors can further be subdivided into passive and active depending on the source of
energy.

 Active sensors use their own source of energy to illuminate earth surface and a
part of it is reflected and received to gather information.

 Passive sensors do not have their own source of energy but instead receive solar
electromagnetic energy reflected from surface or energy emitted from surface itself
hence it cannot be used at nighttime, except thermal sensors. Energy that is
naturally emitted (e.g. Thermal energy) can be detected day or night, as long as the
amount of energy is large enough to be recorded (Sabins, 1997).

: Types of Remote Sensing:

Remote sensing can be broadly classified into three types with respect to the wavelength
region and type of sensor involved for data acquisition; viz. Optical (Visible and
Reflective Infrared), Thermal Infrared and Microwave. In present study, optical remote
sensing technique has been used to achieve the defined objectives.

: Optical Remote Sensing:

Optical remote sensing involves the use of visible part of the EM spectrum. Energy emitted
from sun is used for visible and reflective infrared remote sensing. The International
Commission on Illumination has defined the visible spectrum to be from
0.38 to 0.79 μm. The human eye has its peak sensitivity at 0.55 microns, which is
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Approximately the peak of the emission curve of the sun (Jensen, 1996; Sabins, 1997;
Gupta, 1999; 2003). Remote sensing data obtained in the visible and reflective infrared
regions mainly depends on the reflectance of objects on the ground surface. Therefore,
information about objects can be obtained from the spectral reflectance (Elachi, 1987).

: Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing:

The source of radiant energy used in thermal infrared remote sensing is the object itself,
because any object with a normal temperature will emit EM radiation with a peak at
about 10 μm (Sabins, 1997; Gupta, 2003).

: Microwave Remote Sensing:

In microwave region, there are two types of microwave remote sensing, passive and active.
In passive microwave remote sensing, the microwave radiation emitted from an object is
detected, while in active microwave remote sensing, source of EM radiations and detector
are placed on the sensor (Elachi, 1988).

Inherent characteristics and spectral signature of objects

In any photographic image forming process, the negative is composed of tiny silver
deposits formed by the action light on photosensitive film during exposure. The amount of
light received by the various sections of the film depends on the reflection of EMR from
various objects. The light, after passing through the optical system, gives rise to different
tones and textures.

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In visual interpretation, an interpreted is primarily concerned with recognizing changes in

tonal values, thereby differentiating an object of a certain reflective characteristic from
another. However, he must be aware that the same object under different moisture or
illumination conditions and depending on the wavelength of incident energy may reflect a
different amount of light. For this reason, a general key, based on tone characteristics of
objects, cannot be prepared. In such cases, other characteristics of objects such as their
shape, size and pattern, etc., help in their recognition.

Spectral signature is the parameter, which determines the character of the object under
observation. This can be defined as a unique pattern of wavelengths radiated/reflected by
an object. It can be categorized as:

 Spectral variation: Variation in reflectivity and emissivity as a function of

wavelength.

 Spatial variation: Variation in reflectivity and emissivity with spatial position (i.e.
shape, texture and size of the object).

 Temporal variation: Variation of emissivity and reflectivity like that in diurnal

and seasonal cycle.

 Polarization variation: the material in the radiation reflected or emitted by it

introduces Variations.

Each of these four features of EMR may be interdependent. A measure of these variations
and correlating them with the known features of an object provides signature of the object
concerned. The knowledge of the state of polarization of the reflected radiation in addition
to spectral signature of various objects in remote sensing adds dimension for

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Analysis and interpretation of remote sensing data. These parameters are extremely useful
in providing valuable data for discriminating the objects.

: Elements of image interpretation

Recognizing targets is the key to interpretation and information extraction. Observing the
differences between targets and their backgrounds involves comparing different targets
based on any, or all, of the visual elements of tone, shape, size, pattern, texture, shadow,
and association. Identifying targets in remotely sensed images based on these visual
elements allows us to further interpret and analyze. The nature of each of these
interpretation elements is described below:

: Tone refers to the relative brightness or colour of objects in an image. Generally, tone is
the fundamental element for distinguishing between different targets or features. Variations
in tone also allow the elements of shape, texture, and pattern of objects to be distinguished.

: Shape refers to the general form, structure, or outline of individual objects. Shape can
be a very distinctive clue for interpretation. Straight edge shapes typically represent urban
or agricultural targets, while natural features are generally more irregular in shape.

: Size of objects in an image is a function of scale. It is important to assess the size of a

target relative to other objects in a scene, as well as the absolute size, to aid in

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The interpretation of that target. A quick approximation of target size can direct
interpretation to an appropriate result more quickly.

: Pattern refers to the spatial arrangement of visibly discernible objects. Typically, an

orderly repetition of similar tones and textures will produce a distinctive and ultimately
recognizable pattern.

: Texture refers to the arrangement and frequency of tonal variation in particular areas of
an image. Rough textures would consist of a mottled tone where the grey levels change
abruptly in a small area, whereas smooth textures would have very little tonal variation.

: Shadow is also helpful in interpretation as it may provide an idea of the profile and
relative height of a target or targets, which may make identification easier. However,
shadows can also reduce or eliminate interpretation in their area of influence, since targets
within shadows are much less (or not at all) discernible from their surroundings.

: Association takes into account the relationship between other recognizable objects or
features in proximity to the target of interest. The identification of features that one would
expect to associate with other features may provide information to facilitate identification.

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: Spectral behavior of surface features

As EMR incidents on earth’s surface, behavior of land features is mainly due to the
component of the target at that locality. Since each of these components exhibit typical
spectral signature influenced by so many other parameters of their own, they are to be
considered separately to understand the nature of EMR interaction with each components.
Spectral signature or water, vegetation and soil are discussed below (figure 3.6):

Fig 3.6: Typical spectral reflectance curves for vegetation (two different types), soil
(two different types) and water (two different types)

(Source: http://ceos.cnes.fr:8100/cdrom-00/ceosl/irsa/pages/intro2c.htm)

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: Spectral reflectance and signature of soil

The majority of the flux incident on a soil surface is reflected or absorbed and little is
transmitted. The reflectance properties of the majority of soils are similar, with a positive
relationship between reflectance and wavelength, as seen in fig: 3.7. Main factors
influence the soil reflectance in remote sensing images are mineral composition, moisture
content, organic matter content and soil texture (surface), soil structure and iron oxide
content. Size and shape of the soil aggregate also influence the reflectance in the images.

: Effect of mineral composition:

The mineral composition of soils affects the reflectance spectrum. Increasing reflectance of
soils occurs from the visible to the shortwave infrared - with absorption bands around
1.4 µm and 1.9 µm related to the amount of moisture in the soil.

: Effect of soil texture, structure and moisture:

The relationship between texture, structure and soil moisture can best be described with
reference to two contrasting soil types. A clay soil tends to have strong structure, which
leads to rough surface texture, and have high moisture content and as a result have a low
diffuse reflectance. In contrast, a sandy soil tends to have a weak structure, which leads to
a smooth surface texture, and have low moisture content and as a result have high and
often specular reflectance properties. Soil texture (roughness) also affects soil optical
properties. In visible wavelengths, the presence of soil moisture considerably reduces the
surface reflectance of soil, until the soil is saturated. Reflectance in near and middle
infrared wavelengths is negatively related to soil moisture. An increase in soil moisture
will result in a rapid decrease in reflectance in water and hydroxyl absorbing wavebands.
The effect of water and hydroxyl absorption is more noticeable in clay soil as it has much
bound water and very strong hydroxyl absorption properties.

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Fig 3.7: effect of soil moisture on soil spectral reflectance

(Source: Tutorials from Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun, India)

: Effect of organic matter:

Organic matter may indirectly affect the spectral influence, based on the soil structure and
water retention capacity. It is dark and its presence decreases the reflectance from the soil
up to an organic matter content of around 4-5% but beyond it hardly effects.

: Effect of iron oxide:

Iron oxide gives many soils their rusty red coloration. Iron oxide selectively reflects red
light.

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: Effect of size and shape:

Soil aggregate size and shape influence the reflectance properties. If the size of a soil
aggregate large in diameter, a decrease in reflection will result.

: Spectral reflectance and signature of vegetation

Components that are involved in classifying vegetation from remote sensing images
received from satellites include chemical properties and physical properties recorded for
the vegetation (including surface texture, roughness and local slope properties).

Several factors influence the reflectance quality of vegetation on satellite and remote
sensing images. These include brightness, greenness and moisture. Brightness is calculated
as a weighted sum of all the bands and is defined in the direction of principal variation in
soil reflectance. Greenness is orthogonal to brightness and is a contrast between the near
infrared and visible bands. It is related to the amount of green vegetation in the scene.
Moisture in vegetation will reflect more energy than dry vegetation.

Leaf properties that influence the leaf optical properties are the internal or external
structure, age, water status, mineral stresses, and the health of the leaf (figure 3.8). It is
important to note that the reflectances of the optical properties of leaves are the same,
regardless of the species. What may differ for each leaf, is the typical spectral features
recorded for the three main optical spectral domains; leaf pigments, cell structure and
water content.

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Fig 3.8: Typical spectral response characteristics of green vegetation

(Source: http://www.rsunt.geo.ucsb.edu/rscc/vol2/lec2/2_2.html#21)

Electromagnetic wavelengths affect different parts of plant and trees. These parts include
leaves, stems, stalks and limbs of the plants and trees. The length of the wavelengths also
plays a role for reflection that occurs. Tree leaves and crop canopies reflect more in the
shorter radar wavelengths, while tree trunks and limbs reflect more in the longer
wavelengths. The density of the tree or plant canopy will affect the scattering of the
wavelengths.

Within the electromagnetic spectrum, bands will produce different levels of reflectance
rates. For example, in the visible bands (400 - 700 nm), a lower reflectance will occur as
more light will be absorbed by the leaf pigments than reflected. The blue (450 nm) and
red (670 nm) wavelengths include two main absorption bands that absorb two main leaf
pigments.

Shaik Saleemmiya, Civil Faculty

 Remote Sensing- Unit: 1

The images created by remote sensing will be influenced by these factors: quality, scale
and season of photography, film type and background. Other factors that influence
vegetation classification are time of day, sun angle, atmospheric haze, clouds, processing
errors of transparencies/prints and errors in interpretating the images.

Photographic texture (smoothness and coarseness of images), total contrast or colour,

relative sizes of crown images at a given photo scale and topographic location helps to
determine the cover types of vegetation.

Different types of images will display diverse characteristics of vegetation. Satellite

images can be combined with topographic data (ancillary data) for better interpretation.

: Spectral reflectance and signature of water

The majority of radiation flux incident upon water is not reflected but is either absorbed or
transmitted. In visible wavelengths of EMR, little light is absorbed, a small amount,
usually below 5% is reflected and the rest is transmitted. Wavelengths in the blue-green
portion of the spectrum will have a high transmittance rate. The most distinctive
characteristic of water, with reference to spectral reflectance, is the energy absorption at
the near-infrared wavelengths (figure 3.9). Water absorbs Infrared strongly, leaving little
radiation to be either reflected or transmitted. This results in sharp contrast between any
water and land boundaries. The factors, which govern the variability in reflectance of a
water body, are the depth of the water, suspended material within the water and surface
roughness of the water.

Shaik Saleemmiya, Civil Faculty

 Remote Sensing- Unit: 1

Fig 3.9: Typical spectral reflectance of water

(Source: http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/resource/tutor/fundam/index_e.php)

Energy is absorbed by water in wavelengths. The wavelengths will interact in a complex

manner with the water and matter (figure 3.10). The reflectance properties of water are a
function of the water and the material in the water (organic and/or inorganic material). In
shallow water, some of the radiation is reflected not by the water itself but from the
bottom of the water body. Therefore, in shallow streams often the underlying material
determines the water body’s reflectance properties and colour in the FCC. If the water has
a large amount of suspended sediment present, than a higher visible reflectance will result
compared to clearer waters. Turbulent water will also affect the amount of energy
absorbed and transmitted. The amount of chlorophyll will also affect

Shaik Saleemmiya, Civil Faculty

 Remote Sensing- Unit: 1

The amount of water reflectance. An increase in chlorophyll will result in a decrease of

blue wavelengths and increase in green wavelengths. Water bodies that contain very high
amount of chlorophyll have reflectance properties that resemble, at least in part, those of
vegetation with increased green and decreased blue and decreased red reflectance.
Temperature variations also affect the reflectance of water throughout the day.

Fig 3.10: Absorption of electromagnetic radiation by sea water

(Source: Tutorials from Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun, India)

The roughness of water surface can also affect its reflectance properties. If the surface is
smooth then light is reflected, giving very high or very low reflectance, dependent upon
the location of the sensor. If the surface is rough then there will be increased scattering at
the surface, which in turn will increase the reflectance.

Shaik Saleemmiya, Civil Faculty

Remote Sensing- Unit: 1

Shaik Saleemmiya, Civil Faculty