CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Charcoal a traditional fuel source, has been an integral part of many societies

for centuries. It is primarily used for cooking, heating and other domestic purposes. These

days charcoal is very applicable in our daily lives since it has been used as a household fuel.

Charcoal exists in many forms. It exists in the impure form as the microcrystalline graphitic

form. The charcoal structure shows that it consists of an aromatic structure or carbon.

Charcoal is mostly carbon with some ashes and volatile matter. How long it burns (heat

duration) depends on how much charcoal you have and how well it's made. (Singla, 2024)

Sweitenia Macrophylla is a tropical hardwood tree widely distribute in many

countries. Mahogany is used commercially for wide variety of goods, due to its coloring and

durable nature. Mahogany is commonly used for furniture, joinery, flooring, reenters and

musical instruments. It’s a popular wood species similar in appearance and properties to

Genevieve mahogany. While the wood is primarily used for timber, the leaves, fruit and fruit

husk are often considered as waste product (Ramamirtha, 2024) Leaves is good at absorbing

odors, fruit can be good at filtering water and the husk is the one that truly shows the

properties that it can be made as charcoal. However, the parts of swietenia macrophylla

shows that there is an antimicrobial and properties that can help in treating kinds of diseases.

(Ponnuswamy, 2019) But this study focuses on making a charcoal out of dried mahogany

leaves, and fruit husk and comparing on which of them has the longevity of being a charcoal.

After making them a charcoal, the researchers will then compare the parts of

mahogany properties such as longevity (heat duration), moisture content, carbon content, ash

content, volatile content to be made as charcoal. The utilization of mahogany dried leaves can
offer several benefits. It could reduce the pressure on forest resources, provide an additional

income system for community reliant on mahogany. Through a series of experiments and

evaluation and comparation, this study aims to provide valuable insights into the viability of

utilizing mahogany tree parts which are dry mahogany leaves, fruit and fruit husk as a

sustainable and efficient alternative charcoal source.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

According to the study of Piquero (2021) as they can make alternative charcoal out of

mahogany fruit husk, result showed that three out of five variables accepted the null

hypothesis. These are the heat duration, moisture content and carbon content by comparison

of the p-value and the level of significance which is 0.05. The experimental results and

statistical analyses supplement the claim that mahogany fruit husk charcoal is an effective

alternate charcoal, since it competes with the commercial wood charcoal in terms of moisture

content, sustains heat in terms of heat duration, and carbon content even if the commercial

wood charcoal is superior in terms of ash content and volatile content.

The demand for charcoal continues to increase and the charcoal production brings a

serious human threat in human life and environment if uncontrolled. Unsustainable wood

harvesting, incomplete combustion, and inefficient charcoal production contribute to

greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere. Sustainable charcoal production can help

control GHG emissions and mitigate climate change. However, uncontrolled charcoal

production can damage forests, deforestation, and ecosystem function. Deforestation and

forest degradation also affect soil and water, leading to reduced fertility and increased
sedimentation. Despite these issues, charcoal production can produce biochar, which

improves soil properties and microbial activity. (Rondina,2024).

Mahogany a woodland tree that grows quickly and I frequently used to make furniture

and building materials. More significantly, mahogany trees successfully avert floods and soil

erosion, which is why they are frequently planted alongside riverbanks. One of the most

inventive materials in your surroundings is mahogany, particularly the fruit (sky fruit). It can

be used as fuel or as an alternative to charcoal. Additionally, a lot of individuals heal or

utilized this fruit as medicine. Mahogany trees don't bear flower but develop buds which

create into brown oval natural product. The natural products drop when they mature, and the

dried one’s break spreading on the ground. Thus, these are regularly planted along

streambanks. Mahogany fruits are regularly tossed away. Individuals do not know that the

dried pulps are great substitute of charcoal and kindling, as well as briquettes. Mahogany is

one of the resourceful in our environment particularly the natural product. It can be utilized as

elective charcoal or fuel. Thus, the researcher has come up with a study on utilizing the

mahogany as the main variable for the study. (Daray, 2018).

Charcoal production is an ancient practice since time immemorial. Its production is

basically due to high demand in the market. There are several methods and techniques in

producing charcoal. Charcoal producers use the traditional and modern methods.

Traditionally, the most common methods are the use of oil drums as furnaces and the earth-

pit. Oil drum as furnace is use for coconut shells which are put inside with fire and covered

either banana leaves or metal sheets. Earth-pit is done; woodcuts are placed in it with fire to

produce charcoal, it is then covered with either grass or soil. (Clements, 2022).

Alternative materials offer environmental friendliness, cost-effectiveness, energy

efficiency, and strength-to-durability benefits. They reduce corrosion failures, weight, and
cost in the oil and gas industry. Renewable materials from plant-based sources provide

hierarchical structures, low thermal expansion, and customizable applications. They

contribute to a sustainable future and reduce dependence on non-renewable resources.

(Thanu,2019).

Mahogany wood is sustainable due to its carbon sequestration, storage, and long product

life. However, it must come from sustainably managed forests and not from illegal logging or

monocropping. Furniture made from mahogany can be sustainable when reused or burned for

energy. Conservation efforts are underway to protect tropical forests and wildlife state by

(Nguyen, 2023).

According also to Zorofchian (2013), the researchers examine the antioxidant properties

of Swietenia macrophylla leaves, finding that they contain a significant amount of

polyphenols. These compounds could potentially contribute to the quality of charcoal

produced from the leaves, as they can influence combustion properties.

There are four main types of charcoal: hardwood, softwood, bamboo, and coconut.

Hardwood charcoal is made from the hardwood of trees, such as oak, maple, and beech. It is

the most popular type of charcoal and is the best for grilling because it burns hot and lasts a

long time. Softwood charcoal is made from the softwood of trees, such as pine and cedar. It is

not as popular as hardwood charcoal and does not burn as hot or last as long. Bamboo

charcoal is made from the bamboo plant. It is a popular type of charcoal because it is a

renewable resource and burns hot and clean. Coconut charcoal is made from the husks of

coconuts. It is a popular type of charcoal because it is a renewable resource and burns clean.

(Vipin, 2024).
 BACKGROUD OF THE STUDY

The majority of people in Africa depend on wood for cooking and heating energy due to

its affordability, accessibility and versatility for meeting people’s needs. But while it offers a

low cost means for cooking, heating homes and powering industrial activities, a sizable

proportion of it is obtained unsustainably, leading to deforestation and land degradation

(Ramsay. D,2021)

Charcoal is a lightweight black carbon residue produced by strongly heating wood (or other

animal and plant materials) in minimal oxygen to remove all water and volatile constituents.

In the traditional version of the pyrolysis process called charcoal burning, often forming a

charcoal kiln, the heat supplied by burning part of the starting material itself with a limited

supply of oxygen. Charcoal is used in the production of ferrous and nonferrous metals,

activated carbon and also a household fuel and common charcoals is made from peat, coal,

wood, coconut shell or petroleum (Klein,2022).

On the other hand, mahogany is a tall evergreen with hard wood that turns reddish

brown at maturity. Tree leaflets of each large leaf are arranged like a feather but there is no

terminal leaflet. The small white flowers are borne in clusters and the fruit is a five parted

woody capsule that contains squarish winged seeds (Bartel,2023). Typically, the mahogany

tree can grow up to 150 feet high and 12 feet in diameter but the average diameter is only

about 5 feet. The leaf is a compound leaf. So, there are several distinct leaflets on a single

stem. The seeds grow in a woody capsule (the fruit) that doesn't hang from the branch,

instead it stands straight up. This fruit isn't like the soft flesh of a peach, instead it is woodier.

These mahogany parts can have the potential of being an alternative charcoal because like
most plants, they have a lot of carbon and mahogany are found in many places, so there's a

good supply of fruit and husk. This study aims to make charcoal out of mahogany leaves and

fruit husk. It also compares the leaves and fruit husk on which has the longevity of being a

charcoal.

THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK

This study investigates the potential of mahogany tree between dry leaves, fruit and

fruit husks comparing where is the most effective or alternative charcoal sources. The

researcher will adopt the study of Piquero (2019) expanding the investigation to include a

comparison of mahogany tree leaves, fruit, and fruit husks as potential sources of charcoal.

The study adopts the static group design used in the original research, with one group using

mahogany fruit husks and another using commercial wood charcoal.

The study state that the mahogany parts, often discarded as waste, could be

valuable resources for producing charcoal, reducing reliance on traditional wood sources and

promoting sustainable forest management. By comparing the effectiveness of different parts

of the mahogany tree, the study aims to identify the most suitable and environmentally

friendly option for producing high-quality charcoal.

The study examines the same variables as the original research such as heat

duration, moisture content, carbon content, ash content, and volatile content, to determine the

effectiveness of each part of the mahogany tree as a charcoal source. This will contribute to

our understanding of alternative charcoal production and its potential benefits, specifically

focusing on the comparative analysis of different parts of the mahogany tree as charcoal

sources.
 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
VARIABLE VARIABLE
 Mahogany  Effectiveness and
leaves and longevity of
mahogany leaves
Fruit husks
and fruit husks as
charcoal.

INTERVENING
VARIABLE

-Temperature
-Measurement
technique
 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The increasing demand for charcoal, particularly in developing countries, often leads to

unsustainable deforestation practices. This research explores the potential of using various

parts of the mahogany tree, specifically leaves, fruit, and fruit husks, as alternative sources

for charcoal production. The primary research problem lies in understanding the differences

in charcoal quality and yield derived from these distinct parts of the tree, considering their

implications for local communities, national economies, and global environmental

sustainability.

This research aims to determine the most suitable part of the mahogany tree for

sustainable charcoal production, addressing the local challenge of deforestation and resource

utilization, the national need for economic diversification and energy security, and the global

imperative for mitigating climate change and promoting sustainable forest management. By

investigating the differences in charcoal quality and yield from various parts of the mahogany

tree, this research seeks to contribute to a more sustainable future, balancing economic

development with environmental protection.

HYPOTHESES

1 HO: At the 0.05 level of significance, there is no significant difference in heat

duration, moisture content, volatile content, ash content and carbon content between

charcoal made from mahogany leaves and charcoal made from fruit husk.
 2 H1: At the 0.05 level of significance, there is a significant difference in at least one of

the following properties—heat duration, moisture content, volatile content, ash

content or carbon content—between charcoal made from mahogany leaves and

charcoal made from fruit husk.

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

When comparing the leaves and fruit of a mahogany tree as charcoal based on how

long they last, the scope would likely involve assessing the burning duration, heat output, ash

production, and overall efficiency of each type of material as charcoal. This comparison

could help determine, whether the leaves or fruit of is more suitable for sustainable fuel

production.

Some possible limitations to consider include variations in the moisture content of the

leaves and fruit, differences in their chemical composition affecting burn time, and potential

environmental factors that could influence combustion.

Additionally, the specific method of burning and measuring the duration could impact

the results. Only heat duration, moisture content, carbon content, ash content, and volatile

content is crucial to ensure accurate and reliable conclusions from the comparison. It's

important to carefully control variables and consider external factors that could affect the

outcomes of the experiment.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Charcoal is a big part of Filipino life. Many homes use it for cooking because it's

often cheaper than other fuels like gas. Having an alternative charcoal has several benefits:

Helping the environment because mahogany is a tree that produces a lot of leaves and fruit
and using these parts can reduce the amount of waste that goes to landfills and it helps protect

forests because we wouldn't have to cut down as many as trees. By finding a new source of

charcoal, we might be able to make it more affordable and accessible for everyone. Also,

using mahogany parts to make charcoal can also help clean up our environment. It also help

people by providing jobs by using mahogany for charcoal where mahogany tress grow and if

we are able to identify which of the parts has the longevity of being a charcoal, it can help

people who need a reliable source of fuel, thus the result of this study can help residents who

lives near mahogany trees, they can have more sustainable and affordable source of fuel for

cooking, heating, and other household needs. This study also can contribute to a lot of small

businesses and industries that are relying on charcoal this could reduce their cost and

environmental impact. The result of this study also provides a solid foundation for future

researcher on alternative fuels, biomass utilization, and sustainable energy sources.

BENEFITS AND BENEFICIARIES

Residents: Those living near mahogany trees can have a more sustainable and affordable

source of fuel for cooking, heating, and other household needs.

Businesses: Small businesses and industries that rely on charcoal could reduce their costs and

environmental impact.

Future researchers - the study can provide a solid foundation for future research on alternative

fuels, biomass utilization, and sustainable energy sources.

Environmental Protection Agencies: These agencies can support research and development of

alternative charcoal to reduce pollution and protect the environment

Swietenia macrophylla -commonly known as mahogany, a straight grained reddish brown

timber tree of tropical hardwood species of the genus swietenia.

Charcoal – a lightweight black carbon residue produced by strongly heating wood or other

organic matter in the absence of air.

Heat Duration - in charcoal refers to the length of time that the charcoal can maintain a

steady, high temperature

Moisture Content - The amount of water present in a material, typically expressed as a

percentage of the total mass.

Volatile Content - The portion of a material that is easily vaporized or driven off when

heated. This includes substances like water, organic compounds, and certain gases.

Ash Content - The inorganic residue that remains after a material has been completely

combusted. It consists primarily of mineral matter.

Carbon Content - The amount of carbon present in a material.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATION

In this study on using mahogany leaves as an alternative charcoal, several with ethical

consideration must be addressed to ensure responsible. In environmental sustainability is

crucial, meaning the collection and use of mahogany fruit leaves must not harm the trees or

disrupt the surrounding ecosystems.

Researchers should adopt sustainable practices to protect the environment. And also,

the safety is important, as the study should assess any potential health or environmental risks
related to handling or burning mahogany leaves. Implementing appropriate safety measures

will protect both the researchers and the environment.

The data integrity must be upheld, with researchers reporting findings honestly,

including any limitations or potential risks of using mahogany leaves as charcoal. Accurate

reporting ensures the credibility of the research and contributes to responsible environmental

practices.
 CHAPTER 2

METHODOLOGY

The methodology in this study involves a quantitative and experimental study to

gather a data. Also, this chapter present the research design, research sampling, research

instrument, data gathering procedures and data analysis.

RESEARCH DESIGN

The research can test the effectiveness of mahogany fruit as an alternative charcoal

with the use of quantitative and experimental design. The researchers will utilize quantitative

experimental type of research. Quantitative research design allows the researcher to study the

level of efficacy swietenia macrophylla leaves and fruit husk as alternative charcoal such as

the heat duration, moisture content, volatile content, ash content and carbon content. This

data can be analyzed statistically to draw objectives conclusion. The experimental design will

allow for the manipulation of differences in the resulting charcoal are due to the type of

material used.

REASERCH SAMPLE

In this study, we will use random sampling to ensure a representative selection of

samples. We first define the target population, which includes all available mahogany leaves

and fruit husks. A random sampling method is then employed to select a subset from this

population, where each sample has an equal chance of being chosen. We use a random

number generator to select samples, ensuring the process is unbiased and statistically sound.
The sample size is determined based on the study’s objectives and the total available

material. Each selected sample is collected and prepared according to standardized

procedures. This approach ensures that our findings are generalizable and reflects the true

potential of mahogany leaves and fruit husks as alternative charcoal sources.

In this study, there will be 10 replicates in each content on each sample for each

variable. The sample will be the swietenia macrophylla leaves and fruit husk only. The 3

variables found in this study are the experimental variable, positive control variable and the

negative control variable. The experimental variable is the swietenia macrophylla leaves and

fruit husk; the positive variable is the commercial charcoal, and the negative variable is the

swietenia macrophylla leaves and fruit husk only. The samples will be labelled. Group A that

contains mahogany leaves charcoal, Group B that contains mahogany fruit husk charcoal and

group C that contains commercial and charcoal.

RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

The researchers will use observational checklist and observational tool in gathering the data

through measuring the following properties of charcoal such as the heat duration, moisture

content, ash content, volatile contents, and carbon content. For measuring heat duration, the

materials needed are stopwatch or timer (from mobile phone) and the 2 different charcoals.

For volatile contents the materials needed are tripod, alcohol lamp, heat resistant glass

container (like beaker or test tube), watch glass or similar flat surface, tweezers and safety

google. The moisture content will be measured with the use of weighing scale. For the ash

content, materials will be dessicator, bunsen burner, tripod and balance or scale, for the

carbon content, the materials needed are magnifying glass, and white piece of paper or simply
done by a mathematical equation same with ash content. These are the materials needed in

making the charcoal and measuring its properties.

DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE

The selection of mahogany leaves and fruit husk was conducted and picked from the

ground of mahogany trees in Manay National High School. The researchers did not measure

the weight of mahogany leaves but instead the researcher used a pail to store the leaves and

the same with mahogany fruit husk. The components are distinguished in a different pail. The

selection of mahogany fruit husk is selected by piece.

After the selection and preparation of mahogany leaves and fruit husk, the researcher

will start to make charcoal. First is to dry the mahogany leaves and fruit husk using sun

drying method. Once the components are dry the researchers will now burn them in different

pales. The mahogany leaves should be burn until ashes are the only one left and the husk

should not be totally burned down, it should be form as itself but it's burned and it's turns

black. After burning, the researcher will now make sure that the components are turned into

powder with the help of hammer. If the components are completely turned into powder, the

researchers will mix a cornstarch and water on the powdered leaves and fruit husk until it

forms a compact ball. After mixing, the researchers will now form the charcoal using mold,

hammer and wood having the same size with mold. The charcoal can be formed in any form.

After the formation of charcoal, it will be dried under the sun. The drying process could last

up to days. When the charcoal is completely dry and formed, this is where the researcher will

observe its heat duration, moisture content, ash content, carbon content and volatile content.
 DATA ANALYSIS

The data from this study will be analyzed through ANOVA test (Analysis f Variance).

ANOVA is an appropriate statistical tool for our study comparing mahogany leaves and fruit

husk charcoal to commercial charcoal. Since this research is dealing with multiple groups

(three in this case: mahogany leaves, fruit husk, and commercial charcoal). ANOVA is

designed to efficiently compare means across multiple groups, allowing you to determine if

there are significant differences in the characteristics you're measuring (heat duration,

moisture content, volatile contents, carbon content, and ash content). Additionally, ANOVA

provides a more comprehensive analysis, helping you understand the overall variation

between and within groups