Chapter – 1

Magnetic Circuits and Induction

 Contents
1. Magnetic Circuits
2. Ohm’s Law for Magnetic Circuits
3. Series and Parallel magnetic circuits
4. Core with air gap
5. B‐H relationship (Magnetization Characteristics)
6. Hysteresis with DC and AC excitation
7. Hysteresis Loss and Eddy Current Loss
8. Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, Statically and
Dynamically Induced EMF
9. Force on Current Carrying Conductor

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Important Terms

3
 Magnetic Field
Magnetic field is space around magnet with in which the magnet
has effect on the magnetic material.

Force of attraction/repulsion between two poles of magnet is given

by:

Magnetic lines of forces (magnetic flux) is measured in weber. 4

Magnetic Field Intensity(H)  Magnetic field intensity(H) is defined as the
degree to which the magnetizing field can
magnetize a material.

 Magnetic field intensity at any point of

magnetic field is defined as force
experienced by unit north pole at that point
 Unit – AT/m – A/m
Magnetic flux density (B)  Magnetic Flux density(B) is the measure of
the number of magnetic lines of force per unit
of cross-sectional area.
Φ
B=
 unit is the weber per square meter (Wb/m2).
1 Wb/m2 = 1 tesla (T).
 = constant = μ (permeability) 5
 Direction of Magnetic field
Electrical current flowing along a
wire creates a magnetic field around
the wire.

That magnetic field can be visualized

by showing lines of magnetic flux,
which are represented with the
symbol ‘ϕ’.

The direction of that field that can be

determined using the "right hand
thumb rule"
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 Work Law
Let us take N number of straight conductor,
carrying a current of I ampere
Work = Force *displacement
= H *2πr
 H *2πr = NI
Path c
Hr dr NI
 H=
r 2πr
N pole

 Work law states that, the net work done by a unit N pole in moving around any single
closed path in a magnetic field is equal to ampere turn (NI) linked with the closed loop
Hr – magnetic field at distance r
In path c no current is closed so no work is done
moving unit pole around path c 7
 Work Law cont…
 Now, let’s take a solenoid of length l, where a
single wire is wound N times and carrying a
current of I ampere.
 Also, let H remains constant through the
length and outside the solenoid ut is
neglected.
 If unit N pole is taken once round the
complete path in the direction opposite of H. Unit N pole

 Then, according to work law,

H*l = NI l - because H in only inside solenoid and outside it is neglected
H =
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 Magnetic circuits (w.r.t. Electric circuit )
Unlike electric field lines, the lines of magnetic flux form closed loops.

A magnetic circuit is a closed path followed by lines of magnetic flux.

A copper wire, because of its high conductivity, confines the electric current
within itself.

Similarly, a ferromagnetic material (such as iron or steel), due to its high

permeability, confines magnetic flux within itself.

The permeability (μ) of a material, therefore, is a measure of the ease with

which magnetic flux lines can be established in the material. It is similar in
many respects to conductivity in electric circuits.
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Magnetomotive Force (MMF)
• The electric current is due to the existence of an electromotive
force (emf).

• By analogy, we may say that in a magnetic circuit, the magnetic

flux is due to the existence of a magnetomotive force (mmf).

• mmf is caused by a current flowing through one or more turns.

• The value of the mmf is proportional to the current and the

number of turns (NI).

• It is expressed in ampere turns (At).

• But for the purpose of dimensional analysis, it is expressed in
amperes.
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 Ohm's Law for Magnetic Circuits
Consider a magnetic circuit as shown:

So, mmf (F ) = Ni (ampere - turns)

 The magnetic flux(Φ) is proportional to the mmf driving force and inversely
proportional to a quantity called reluctance R, which is analogous to electrical
resistance.

 "Ohm's law" of magnetic circuits given by:

F=ΦR 11
Reluctance (R) and Permeance (G)
• The current in an electric circuit is limited by the presence of
resistance of the electric circuit.

• Similarly, the flux Φ in a magnetic circuit is limited by the presence of

the reluctance of the magnetic circuit,
1 l 1 l
R  
 A  r 0 A
The reciprocal of reluctance is known as permeance (G).

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 Series and Parallel magnetic circuits

In series circuit same flux passes In parallel circuit flux divides in two
through both resistors. or more circuits

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 Magnetic Permeability (μ)

• If the core of the toroid is vacuum or air, the magnetic flux density B
in the core bears a definite ratio to the magnetic field strength H.
• This ratio is called permeability of free space.

• Thus, for vacuum or air,

B
  0  4  10 7 Tm/A
H

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 Magnetic Circuit Theory

• For a toroid, mmf, F = NI ampere-turns.

• Because of this mmf, a magnetic field of strength H is set up
throughout the length l.
• Therefore, F = Hl …….(i)
• If, B is the flux density, total flux is given as
Φ = B  A ……(ii)
• Dividing, (ii) by (i) we get

Φ BA B A A A F
     r 0  Φ
F Hl H l l l l /(  r 0 A)
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 F
Φ
l /(  r 0 A)

Comparing this with I =

1
l
We get, R 
r 0 A
mmf
Φ = =
μ VVI Formulas

Φ=BA
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Type 1: core having only one cross section area:

Fig: magnetic circuit

mmf
Φ = =
μ

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Type 2: Core with air gap

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Type 3: Core with different cross sectional area

l1 l2
R1  R2 
1 A1  2 A2
l1 l
 Total Reluctance, R  R 1  R 2   2
1 A1  2 A2

mmf
Φ = =
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Case 4: Magnetic circuit having parallel reluctance

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Magnetic circuit having multiple mmf

mmf
Φ = =
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Example 1
Calculate the magnetomotive force (mmf) required to produce a
flux of 0.015 Wb across an air gap of 2.5 mm long, having an
effective area of 200 cm2.
Solution : ANS: 𝟏𝟒𝟗𝟐𝐀𝐭

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Example 2: (3/3 num of ring&block with/without gap, crack
Find the magnetic flux  established following magnetic circuit. [permeability of cast
steel = 800]

Current I = 2A
No. of turns N = 100
Cross sectional area A = 0.009m2
Radius of ring r = 0.08m
μr = 800
mmf NI =
Φ= =1 1 ∗ π
μ∗ μr μo .

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Example 3: A ring of ferromagnetic material has a rectangular cross section. The
inner diameter is 7.4 in., the outer diameter is 9 in., and the thickness is 0.8 in. There
is a coil of 600 turns wound on the ring. When the coil carries a current of 2.5 A, the
flux produced in the ring is 1.2 x Wb. Find: (i) Magnetic flux density (ii)
Reluctance (iii) Permeability of core.
Solution
Inner diameter = 7.4 inch ~ m
Outer diameter = 9 inch~m
Thickness h = 0.8 inch~m
N = 600
I = 2.5A
Φ = 1.2 x
Mean length π Φ =
Where , = 1l
Area (A) = )*t R 
r 0 A 25
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Example 5: A ring of iron has a mean diameter of 15 cm, a cross section of 1.5 cm² and
has a radial air gap of 0.5 mm cut in it. It is uniformly wound with 1500 turns of insulated
wire and a current of 1.2 A produces a flux of 0.1 mWb across the air gap. Calculate the
relative permeability of iron on the assumption that there is no magnetic leakage.
Solution:
Given:
mean diameter = 15 cm
mean length = π * 15 * m
length of air gap = 0.5 * m N = 1500
Length of core = (π * 15 * - 0.5 * m
cross section (A) = 1.5 cm² = 1.5* m
turns N = 1500
Current I = 1.2A
Flux Φ = 0.1* Wb (same for core and gap as I)
mmf NI
Φ= =
1 ∗ (
1 ∗ )
μo μoμ 27
Example 6: A circular iron ring having a cross-sectional area of 10 cm² and a length of 4∏
cm in iron has an air gap of 0.4 ∏ mm made a saw cut( or crack). The relative
permeability of iron is and permeability of free space is 4π × H/m. The ring is
wound with a coil of 2,000
turns and carries 2 mA. Determine the air-gap flux neglect leakage and fringing.
Solution:
Given:
cross section area (A) = 10 cm² = 10* m
mean iron length = 4π * m
length of air gap = 0.4 π * m N = 2000
Length of core = 4π * m (gap is not subtracted)
turns N = 2000
Current I = 2* A
Flux Φ = ?
mmf NI
Φ= =
1 ∗ (
1 ∗ )
μo μoμ
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Example 7: Consider a rectangular iron core, which has a relative permeability of μr=
1500. Determine the reluctance and the magnetic flux in this core when a 200 turns coil
has a current of 2A

Solution:
From the diagram , we have mean length of the
flux path is,
l=16+14+16+14=60cm=0.6m
cross-sectional area is:
A=(4 cm)(3 cm) = (0.03)(0.04) =0.0012m2 =
1.2 mm2

then the reluctance of the core is

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Example 8: The magnetic circuit of the figure given below has cast steel core with
dimensions as shown:
Mean length from A to B through either outer limb = 0.5 m.
Mean length from A to B through central limb = 0.2m
In the magnetic circuit shown it is required to establish a flux of 0.75 mWb in air gap of
central limb. Determine the mmf of the exciting coil if the core material relative permeability
is 5000. Neglect friniging
Solution: Given
Length of iron core of outer limb
= = 0.5-0.02*
Length of iron core of central limb
= 0.5-0.02*
Air gap in outer limb = =0.02*

Area of outer limb = = 1*1*

m
Area of central limb = 2*1* m 30
10

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Example 9: Determine (a) the reluctance and (b) flux through core assuming that the
core is soft iron with μr = 2000. (HA)
Solution:
= 24* -4*
= 4*
The reluctances of the core and gap are

= 234753.54 AT/web

=7957747.15 AT/web (μr = 1 for air)

mmf = +
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 Types of magnet

Temporary Magnets Permanent Magnets

 Temporary magnets are magnets that work in

the presence of a magnetic field like permanent
magnets, but loose magnetism when not in a
magnetic field.

 Electromagnets are coiled wire coils that work

as magnets when passing through an electrical
current.
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 Magnetisation or B-H Curve
On application of
magnetic field

Lets suppose an unmagnetized core is magnetized by applying magnetic field strength

(H).

The random haphazard arrangement of the molecule structure within the core material
changes as the tiny molecular magnets within the material become “lined-up”.

If we go on increasing field strength (H).

flux density of core increases in proportion to the field strength until it reaches a certain
value.
After that value it can not increase any more becoming almost constant level even
though the field strength continues to increase.
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Magnetisation or B-H Curve

Magnetic saturation

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 Magnetisation or B-H Curve

Weber’s theory says that the random haphazard arrangement of the molecule
structure within the core material changes as the tiny molecular magnets within
the material become “lined-up” when magnetic field is applied.

As the magnetic field strength, ( H ) increases these molecular magnets become
more and more aligned until they reach perfect alignment producing maximum
flux density.

After that any increase in the magnetic field strength due to an increase in the
electrical current flowing through the coil will have little or no effect.

And saturation occurs.

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 After magnetizing

Removing supply
Completely demagnetized?

No
Why?
Because of feedback effect
What should be done to completely demagnetized the core?
 By reversing the current direction of battery
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 B-H Curve
When an unmagnetized iron piece magnetized by
applying magnetic field intensity(H) then, it follows:

1. oa – when more H applied, B increased until

saturated. At this point no increment of B when
we increase the H.
2. ab- when we reduce the H the B also reduce but
will not go to zero.
3. bc- a negative value of H has to applied in order
to reduce B to zero.
4. cd – when applying more H in the negative O
direction will increase B in the reverse direction.
5. def- reduction in H will reduce B but it will not
go to zero. If the magnetizing force is increased
in the positive direction (H), the curve traces the
path shown from e to a. The entire curve
represented by abcdefa is called the hysteresis
curve. 38
 Hysteresis loss
When an unmagnetized core is magnetized, its molecules are forced to
align along straight line hence energy is spend in doing so.

 Because of retaintivity, the energy spent in straightening the

molecules could not be recovered by reducing its magnetic field(H) to
zero.

Hence energy loss during the process of magnetization and

demagnetization is known as hysteresis loss.

Hysteresis loop measures energy dissipated due to hysteresis process

which appears in the form of heat and raise the temperature of the core.
Calculation of energy loss per cycle of magnetization
Let, L- length of iron core
A – cross sectional area of the core
N – number of turns in winding
B- magnetic flux density at any instant.
Then, magnetic flux at any instant is ϕ= B.A (time varying)
dϕ ( . )
• Also emf induced in coil is e= N =N …(i)
• Also, magnetizing force is given by: H = I= …………….(ii)
• Now, rate of energy expenditure in maintain the current ‘I’ by applying emf:
P = e*I = * =A
P=A
• Energy spent in small fraction of time is given by: dw = p*dt = A 40
Total energy spent in a cycle of magnetization is given by:
W = ∫dw
=∫A
=A ∫
= A * ∫ Area shaded in the figure

= volume of iron *Area of loop (Volume=Area* ength)

energy spent in a cycle of magnetization = volume of iron *Area of loop

Energy spent per unit volume = ∫ = Area of loop

𝒉=∫ 41
 Importance of Hysteresis Loop
 When we plot the magnetic field intensity (H) versus the magnetic flux
density (B) will produce a curve so called Hysteresis loop

The main advantages of hysteresis loop are given below:

Smaller hysteresis loop area symbolizes less hysteresis loss.

Hysteresis loop provides the value of retentivity and coercivity of a material. Thus
the way to choose perfect material to make permanent magnet, core of machines
becomes easier.

From B-H graph, residual magnetism can be determined and thus choosing of
material for electromagnets is easy.
 Hysteresis Loop

 High retentivity and coercivity,

 High retentivity and low coercivity,
 Thus, Suitable for making permanent magnet
 Small hysteresis loop and low
 Large hysteresis loop and high hysteresis loss,
hysteresis loss,
 Thus not suitable for transformer core.
 Thus suitable for transformer core.
 Eg: Alloy of Aluminium, nickel steel
 Eg: silicon steel sheet. 43
 Hysteresis with AC excitation

Bm – maxm value
of flux density
f – frequency of
current
V – volume of core
η – Steinmetz
constant

• Triangular section in ac wave form shows the energy lost in every

cycle to demagnetize the residual magnetic flux in the core.
• Power lost is given by :
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 Eddy Current Loss

To minimize
eddy current

According to Faradays law

Changing magnetic flux linked with the
 
core itself which is a conductor too, an
emf is induced in it and a circulating
Input current flux current flows as shown in figure 45
 Eddy Current Loss
When an alternating magnetic field is applied to a magnetic material, an emf is
induced in the material itself according to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic
induction.
Since the magnetic material is a conducting material, these EMFs circulate current
within the body of the material.
These circulating currents are called Eddy Currents. They will occur when the
conductor experiences a changing magnetic field.
As these currents are not responsible for doing any useful work, and it produces a
loss ( R loss) in the magnetic material known as an Eddy Current Loss.
Similar to hysteresis loss, eddy current loss also increases the temperature of the
magnetic material.
The hysteresis and the eddy current losses in a magnetic material are also known
by the name iron losses or core losses or magnetic losses.
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 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s First Law: Whenever the magnitude of magnetic flux linking the coil changes
with respect to time, an emf will be induced in the coil.

Change in magnetic flux linkage

Coil is stationary but Flux is stationary but Flux changes as well as

flux changing w.r.t time coils move changing conductor move

Statically induced emf

Eg: Transformer Dynamically induced emf
Eg: generator
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 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s Second Law

The induced emf in a coil is equal to the rate of
change of flux linkage.

Where,
ε is the electromotive force,
Φ is the magnetic flux, and
N is the number of turns.
-ve sign represent that the current direction is
such that it oppose the cause 48
 Force on Current Carrying Conductor
Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force will
be developed in that conductor.
The magnitude of force is given by:
F = BIL
Where, I is the current,
L is the length of the conductor, and
B is the strength of the magnetic field
The direction of force is given by Flemings left hand rule

 force on current-carrying conductors is used to convert electric energy to work.

(Motors

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 Inductance
Inductance is the ability of a structure to store energy in a magnetic field.
Current creates a magnetic field, which subsequently exerts force on other
current-bearing structures.
For example, the current in each winding of a coil exerts a force on every
other winding of the coil.
 If the windings are fixed in place, then this force is unable to do work (i.e.,
move the windings), so instead the coil stores potential energy.
This potential energy can be released by turning off the external source.
The potential energy that was stored in the coil is converted to kinetic
energy and subsequently used to redistribute the charge until no current
flows.
At this point, the inductor has expended its stored energy.

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 Assignments
1. Define magnetic circuits and list out the similarities between electric and
magnetic circuits
2. Explain the hysteresis loop of a magnetic material used in electrical machine.
3. Prove that the area of the loop is proportional to the energy loss per cycle per
unit volume
4. Differentiate between hard and soft magnetic material.
5. Explain hysteresis phenomena with ac excitation.
6. How does eddy current loss occurs, and how it can be minimized.
7. What is meant by statically and dynamically induced emf? On what factors do
these depend? Give practical example of each.

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