Prose fiction

There are different types of fiction texts, the main types are:

 prose
 poetry
 drama
Fiction texts have a creative element to them and tend to use literary devices. Prose fiction from
the 19th century tends to have longer, more complex sentences, and often has more description
than modern fiction texts do.

Within each type of fiction, there are different genres. For example, there are different genres of
prose fiction. In the 19th century the following prose genres were popular:

 gothic fiction
 realist fiction
 romance fiction
 crime fiction
Arthur Conan Doyle is well known for developing the crime fiction genre. His character
Sherlock Holmes appeared in several short stories and novels, including the The Sign of Four in
1890.

Mary Shelley’s novel Frankenstein (1818) is an example of gothic fiction. This novel is based in
a series of gloomy settings and has a supernatural theme and an atmosphere of terror and horror.

Different forms of prose fiction

Most prose fiction is presented in the form of a novel, novella or short story.

The word ‘novel’ comes from Latin and Italian origin and means 'new’. Novels became popular
with readers in the 18th century, so are a fairly new type of fiction compared with poetry and
drama.

Prose texts are usually defined by their length, though there are other differences:

Short stories

 Tell a complete story in a few thousand words.

 Have a limited number of characters.
 Are sometimes more about conveying an atmosphere than plot.
 Often leave questions unanswered for the reader to think about.
 Some writers are famous for their short stories. Edgar Allen Poe is a famous American short
story writer from the 19th century. His short story The Murders in the Rue Morgue (1841) is
considered to be one of the first examples of a detective story.

Novellas

 Are mid-way in length between short stories and a full-length novel.

 Usually have one plot-line.
 Are not always divided into chapters.
Some novellas you may have heard of are Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol or John
Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men. Although these forms are short, they provide the reader with a
vivid snapshot of life and have well developed characters.

Novels

 Are a relatively modern form of literature compared to plays and poetry.

 Often have a number of different plot lines which can support or contrast each other.
 Usually have several characters and their stories.
 Are often divided into chapters.
 Normally tie up all the loose ends by the end of the book.
Some famous novels which you might have heard of include: Jane Eyre by Charlotte
Brontë, Lord of the Flies by William Golding, and Vanity Fair by William Thackeray.

Setting
Understanding setting
The setting of a text is the place and time used within the text. This may be:

 in the past, present day or the future

 a time of day
 a particular time of year
 a specific geographical location - such as a named city or country
 a type of place or event - like a school or a wedding
Setting is an important part of a how a text achieves its effect. It can echo the themes of
the narrative. For example, the dark streets of Victorian London echo the theme
of immorality in Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde.
 The time of day or year when a text is set also adds to its effect. For example, a school at night is
a very different place to a school during the day. A ghost story would probably work better at
night as it would add a sense of uncertainty and fear and create more tension for the reader.

The writer may use specific techniques to create a particular effect. For example, the writer could
use pathetic fallacy to give emphasis to a character’s emotions - “The memory of that afternoon
lay heavy upon her. All around the snow smothered the landscape.” In this description, the
character’s negative emotional state is reflected by the weather.

Historical context is important when understanding the setting of a piece of fiction.

A writer has chosen to use a particular point in history for a reason. A reader may make certain
judgements and assumptions about this historical setting. For example, a reader might assume
that a piece of fiction set during World War Two will be serious and moving. The writer could
meet these expectations or surprise the reader in some way.

Questions to focus on setting:

 What does the reader learn about this place and time?
 How is this place and time important to theme and character?
 What techniques does the writer use to create atmosphere?
 How does the language influence the reader’s response to this setting?

How setting is used

In this extract from Charles Dickens's Great Expectations, the description of the weather creates
a negative atmosphere.

Day after day, a vast heavy veil had been driving over London from the East, and it drove still, as
if in the East there were an Eternity of cloud and wind. So furious had been the gusts, that high
buildings in town had had the lead stripped off their roofs; and in the country, trees had been torn
up, and sails of windmills carried away; and gloomy accounts had come in from the coast, of
shipwreck and death. Violent blasts of rain had accompanied these rages of wind, and the day
just closed as I sat down to read had been the worst of all.

Charles Dickens, Great Expectations, Chapter 39

 Example analysis

 The use of the metaphor, “…a vast heavy veil…” makes the weather seem oppressive.
 The use of the adjective “vast” creates a subtle alliteration with the noun “veil”, highlighting
the contrast of a delicate item with the word “heavy”.
 The long, multi-clause sentence at the start of the extract underlines the relentless feel of the
“...cloud and wind.”
 The writer also uses personification - “So furious had been the gusts…rages of wind…”
 The words ‘furious’ and ‘rages’ establish a feeling of gloom, as if the weather’s emotions are
mirroring the accounts of “…shipwreck and death.”
 The noun phrase “…violent blasts of rain” also creates a negative atmosphere, the word
‘blasts’ creates a harsh, physical impression on the reader.
 This is reinforced by a general semantic field of violence - “…stripped…torn…blasts…rages.”
 The structure of the paragraph also establishes the grim, relentless mood. For example, it starts
with the phrase “Day after day…” and includes the frequent repetition of the connective ‘and’.
 The final phrase “…worst of all” leaves the reader with a lasting, negative impression of the
setting.

Themes
Identifying themes and ideas

Although a text may appear to be about events that take place, the themes are the important ideas
and meanings that run throughout the text. For example, Lord of the Flies by William Golding is
about a group of school boys stranded on an island. However, the writer is also presenting the
reader with some important ideas - themes like the loss of innocence and the conflict between
violence and reason.

Other common themes in fiction include:

 power
 love
 money
 death
 appearance and reality
 heroism
 technology in society
 friendship
One of the easiest ways to spot themes is through motifs. A motif is a repeated image or idea in a
text that helps develop a theme. It helps to know that the word ‘motif’ comes from the French
word for pattern. For example, in the novella Of Mice and Men, there is a focus on the images of
hands throughout the text. The image of hands could develop various themes, including violence
and identity.

Identifying a theme in an extract

In an extract you might only be able to say what themes are suggested. When working with a
short extract of a fiction text, it helps to look closely at the language choices to work out the
themes.

Example
Look at this extract from the novel Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens. Try to identify the themes
that run through this extract.

What an excellent example of the power of dress, young Oliver Twist was! Wrapped in the
blanket which had hitherto formed his only covering, he might have been the child of a
nobleman or a beggar; it would have been hard for the haughtiest stranger to have assigned him
his proper station in society. But now that he was enveloped in the old calico robes which had
grown yellow in the same service, he was badged and ticketed, and fell into his place at once--a
parish child--the orphan of a workhouse--the humble, half-starved drudge--to be cuffed and
buffeted through the world--despised by all, and pitied by none. Oliver cried lustily. If he could
have known that he was an orphan, left to the tender mercies of church-wardens and overseers,
perhaps he would have cried the louder.

Oliver Twist, Charles Dickens

There are plenty of hints that poverty and class are important themes. For example:

 Oliver is an “…orphan of a workhouse…”

 There is reference to “…his proper station in society…fell into his place at once…”
 It is suggested that everyone has a position given to them at birth – their place in the class system.
 The emotive, choice of vocabulary, “despised by all, and pitied by none…”, suggests Oliver will suffer because of
his low position in society.
 The satirical tone of the language suggests the writer does not approve of this situation.
Identifying the themes of a text is an act of inference. You can make links between the themes of
a text to the characters, the setting and the language.

Don’t confuse the topic with the theme. For example the topic of a text could be two friends
travelling around looking for work on ranches, but the themes might be friendship and the
pointlessness of dreams as seen in Of Mice and Men.
 Exploring themes

When you focus on a theme within a text, expand your exploration beyond simply identifying
main themes, like hate, family, relationships, power. Instead look at how themes relate to each
other, by exploring conflicting ideas and the clash of opposites at the heart of them. For example:

 conflict - us versus them, friends versus foes, the state versus the citizen
 family - feelings of safety versus desire for independence
 love - desire for something forbidden versus attainable love
 power - the individual versus the state, man versus nature
 place - an idea of paradise versus reality, the idea of home versus exile
 nature - the separation of man from nature, natural beauty versus violence
An interesting theme involves a clash of opposites. Love as a theme is more interesting when
there is conflict. If two people meet, fall in love and there are no problems, then it is not a very
interesting story. Without something trying to stop love, the story has nowhere to go.

You can give structure and energy to an analysis essay by discussing the opposite sides of a
theme.

The following extract is taken from a novel called Tess of the d’Urbervilles and shows a
conversation between Tess, a working class girl, and Alec, a wealthy man of the upper classes.

He took a few steps away from her, but, returning, said,

‘Bye the bye, Tess, your father has a new cob to-day. Somebody gave it to him.’

‘Somebody? You!’

D’Urberville nodded.

‘O how very good of you that is!’ she exclaimed, with a painful sense of awkwardness of having
to thank him just then.

‘And the children have some toys.’

‘I didn’t know – you ever sent them anything!’ she murmured, much moved. ‘I almost wish you
had not – yet, I almost wish it!’

‘Why, dear?’

‘It – hampers me so.’

‘Tessy – don’t you love me ever so little now?’

 ‘I’m grateful,’ she reluctantly admitted. ‘But I fear I do not –’

Tess of the d’Urbervilles, Thomas Hardy

This extract suggests some conflicting themes. For example:

 unrequited love
 power in relationships
 conflict in relationships
 differences between the classes

Writing about themes

Jane Austen
Writing about themes could give your analysis of an extract a deeper response and show that you
are thinking about the ideas the writer is presenting.

When you are analysing an extract, think about the following:

 How does the language choice suggest a theme?

 Are there any patterns in the language that give emphasis to a theme?
 Do particular images suggest a theme?
 How does the description of the setting suggest the theme?
 Which events help to develop the themes in the extract?
 How do the characters in the extract represent the theme?
 Are there any language choices that suggest a clash, opposites or conflict of themes?
Example
The opening of Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen presents the reader with some interesting
themes.
 It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be
in want of a wife.

However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his first entering a
neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds of the surrounding families, that he is
considered as the rightful property of some one or other of their daughters.

"My dear Mr. Bennet," said his lady to him one day, "have you heard that Netherfield Park is let
at last?"

Mr. Bennet replied that he had not.

"But it is," returned she; "for Mrs. Long has just been here, and she told me all about it."

Mr. Bennet made no answer.

"Do not you want to know who has taken it?" cried his wife impatiently.

"You want to tell me, and I have no objection to hearing it."

This was invitation enough.

"Why, my dear, you must know, Mrs. Long says that Netherfield is taken by a young man of
large fortune from the north of England; that he came down on Monday in a chaise and four to
see the place, and was so much delighted with it that he agreed with Mr. Morris immediately;
that he is to take possession before Michaelmas, and some of his servants are to be in the house
by the end of next week."

Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen

The author’s use of language in this extract presents the reader with some important themes:

 In the opening statement, the writer uses humour and irony - “…a single man in possession of
a good fortune must be in want of a wife.”
 Although the statement suggests that a wealthy man wants a wife, there is an implication that a
woman would want a husband that is wealthy - “…rightful property…of their daughters…”
 The use of the noun ‘..property..’ in relation to marriage suggests that it is an economical
arrangement.
 This focus on wealth is also suggested by the references to Mr.Bingley’s “chaise and four” and
“large fortune”.
 The contrast between Mr. and Mrs Bennets’ dialogue is also comical – Mr Bennet’s silence
and then sarcasm shows his lack of interest, in contrast to his gossipy wife - “You want to tell
me, and I have no objection to hearing it.” The use of the italics suggests his sarcastic tone.
 His restraint is contrasted with her chattiness - “Mr Bennet made no answer.”
 The reader is presented with a married couple who seem mismatched.
 These language choices combine to suggest two themes:

 money and wealth

 marriage

Characterisation and narrative voice

What is characterisation?
Characterisation is the way writers create characters and make them believable. When writing
about texts, it is easy to treat characters as real people. Try to remember that the author
is creating characters using language.

Think about the set of characters in a text:

 What are the characters like? How do you know this?

 What do the characters say (dialogue)?
 What do the characters do?
 How are they described?
 How are they seen by other characters?

Characterisation example
Character can be shown through the things characters do, what they say, what they look like, and
what they own.

This extract from Charles Dickens’s Hard Times introduces Mr Gradgrind, the headmaster of a
school.

What do we learn about this character from the writer’s choice of language?

“Now, what I want is, Facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing but Facts. Facts alone are
wanted in life. Plant nothing else, and root out everything else. You can only form the minds of
reasoning animals upon Facts: nothing else will ever be of any service to them. This is the
principle on which I bring up my own children, and this is the principle on which I bring up these
children. Stick to Facts, sir!”

The scene was a plain, bare, monotonous vault of a school-room, and the speaker's square
forefinger emphasised his observations by underscoring every sentence with a line on the
schoolmaster's sleeve. The emphasis was helped by the speaker's square wall of a forehead,
which had his eyebrows for its base, while his eyes found commodious cellarage in two dark
caves, overshadowed by the wall. The emphasis was helped by the speaker's mouth, which was
 wide, thin, and hard set. The emphasis was helped by the speaker's voice, which was inflexible,
dry, and dictatorial. The emphasis was helped by the speaker's hair, which bristled on the skirts
of his bald head, a plantation of firs to keep the wind from its shining surface, all covered with
knobs, like the crust of a plum pie, as if the head had scarcely warehouse-room for the hard facts
stored inside.

Hard Times, Charles Dickens

Analysis

 The writer chooses to use dialogue to give an immediate impression of Gradgrind’s character.
 He uses a lot of commands in his speech, “Stick to Facts, sir!” This suggests that he’s used to
being in charge. He emphasises ‘Facts’ by using the capital letter ‘F’. This suggests he has a
narrow view of education.
 Although the narrator seems to be describing the character in quite a factual way – suggesting
he’s neutral, the reader can see that the narrator does not approve of Gradgrind.
 The negative impression of the Mr.Gradgrind is also strengthened by the description of the
surroundings, the school-room is “…plain, bare, monotonous…”
 This triplet of negative words established a pattern in the extract. For example, later the writer
includes the triplet “…wide, thin, and hard…” and then “…inflexible, dry, and dictatorial…”
 These groups of adjectives emphasise an undesirable view of the character for the reader.
 The writer uses the extended metaphor of a building to describe Gradgrind’s appearance. For
example, his “square wall of a forehead” and his eyes are “…commodious cellarage in two
dark caves…” This metaphor is also picked up in the final line in the reference to the “…
warehouse room…” of his head. The effect of these images is quite comical and perhaps also
hints at his severe and hard character.

Characters and contrasts

It’s important to think about how characters change and interact with each other, as this could
suggest some important themes or ideas in the text. The writer may use language to encourage
the reader to respond to a character in a certain way.

Look for contrasts or contradictions - not just between characters, but within each character. In
real life no one is simply good or bad. All effective characters have more than one side.

Typical contrasts between characters

 Characters who think versus characters who feel.

 Characters who talk versus characters who act.
 Sociable characters versus solitary characters.
 Predators who take advantage of people versus characters who are victims.
 Characters who want one thing versus those who want another.
 Typical contrasts within a character

 A person who says one thing, and does another.

 A character who sacrifices something important to pursue a goal of their own.
 A character who wants two opposing things.

Example
This extract is a description of a character from Jane Austen’s 19th century novel Pride and
Prejudice. Mr Darcy is one of the main characters in the story. What do we learn about him from
this extract?

Mr. Bingley was good-looking and gentlemanlike; he had a pleasant countenance, and easy,
unaffected manners. His sisters were fine women, with an air of decided fashion. His brother-in-
law, Mr Hurst, merely looked the gentleman; but his friend Mr Darcy soon drew the attention of
the room by his fine, tall person, handsome features, noble mien; and the report which was in
general circulation within five minutes after his entrance, of his having ten thousand a year. The
gentlemen pronounced him to be a fine figure of a man, the ladies declared he was much
handsomer than Mr Bingley, and he was looked at with great admiration for about half the
evening, till his manners gave a disgust which turned the tide of his popularity; for he was
discovered to be proud, to be above his company, and above being pleased.

Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen

Analysis
 There’s a contrast between Mr.Bingley’s “…unaffected manners…” and Darcy’s manners which “…gave a
disgust…”
 The choice of the emotive word ‘disgust’ suggests their feelings are strong, as the word has connotations of
disapproval and loathing.
 This is in marked contrast to the feelings of “…great admiration…” that people felt towards Darcy at first.
 The use of the metaphor “…turned the tide of his popularity…” also gives emphasis to the strength of this
change of feeling.
 All of the men in the extract are judged against the standard of being a ‘gentleman’. Mr Bingley is
“gentlemanlike...” in contrast to Mr Hurst who “…merely looked the gentleman…”
 It is implied, at first, that Darcy appears to be the superior Gentleman. There is a contrast between the
mild adjective‘pleasant’ used to describe Mr. Bingley and the words chosen to describe Darcy - “fine, tall…
handsome…noble…fine figure…”
 The repetition of the word ‘fine’ is significant and it has suggestions of quality and superiority. His wealth and
status, it is implied, has contributed to his ‘proud’ manner.
 Darcy and Bingley are also directly compared - “…he was much handsomer than Mr. Bingley.”
 The writer uses contrasts between characters and also contrasts between the positive first impression of Darcy
and then the negative final judgement of his behaviour - “…he was discovered to be proud…”
When you are writing about characterisation, don't just describe what characters are like. Examine the language
techniques used by the writer to create the character.
 What is narrative voice?
Narrative voice is the perspective the story is told from. The writer chooses a narrative voice
carefully, as it can have an important effect on the story and the reader’s response.

Different types of Narrative Voice Example

I watched as the boat sank. I felt a

A character within the story is telling the story. mixture of relief and guilt. I turned
First person Some of the main personal pronouns used are I, to take the rudder, pushing away
my, me, we. the thoughts that crawled like ants
into my mind.

You watch as the boat slowly sinks.

You feel relief mixed with guilt.
Second Not commonly used by writers. The personal
You turn and take the rudder,
person pronouns you and your are used throughout.
pushing away the thoughts that
crawl like ants into your mind.

George watched as the boat slowly

The story is being told by the voice of someone sank. He felt relief mixed with
Third person who is not a character in the story. The main guilt. He turned to take the rudder,
personal pronouns used are she, he and they. pushing away the thoughts that
crawled like ants into his mind.

George watched as the boat sank.

The story is being told by a voice who shows He felt relief mixed with guilt. Six
Third person they know more than the characters in the story – miles away a group of fishermen
omniscient the narrator is all knowing. The main personal watched the horizon, looking for
pronouns used are she, he and they. signs of the storm they could feel in
the air.

When thinking about narrative voice, think about the following:

 How does the reader feel about the narrator?

 Does the reader trust the narrator? Do they seem reliable?
 Is the voice of the narrator the author or someone else?
 How does the narrator choose to show us this fictional world?

Examples of narrative voice

Diary of a Nobody by George and Weedon Grossmith is a first person narrative. The story is told
from the perspective of a character called Charles Pooter. We get a sense of his character from
the language he uses.

On moving my hand above the surface of the water, I experienced the greatest fright I ever
received in the whole course of my life; for imagine my horror on discovering my hand, as I
thought, full of blood. My first thought was that I had ruptured an artery, and was bleeding to
death, and should be discovered, later on, looking like a second Marat, as I remember seeing him
in Madame Tussaud’s. My second thought was to ring the bell, but remembered there was no
bell to ring. My third was, that there was nothing but the enamel paint, which had dissolved with
boiling water. I stepped out of the bath, perfectly red all over, resembling the Red Indians I have
seen depicted at an East-End theatre. I determined not to say a word to Carrie, but to tell
Farmerson to come on Monday and paint the bath white.

Diary of a Nobody, George and Weedon Grossmith

In this extract the writer uses an omniscient narrator. This narrator is not a character, but a
voice that knows the thoughts and feelings of all the characters in the story.

Margaret, the eldest of the four, was sixteen, and very pretty, being plump and fair, with large
eyes, plenty of soft brown hair, a sweet mouth, and white hands, of which she was rather vain.
Fifteen-year-old Jo was very tall, thin, and brown, and reminded one of a colt, for she never
seemed to know what to do with her long limbs, which were very much in her way. She had a
decided mouth, a comical nose, and sharp, gray eyes, which appeared to see everything, and
were by turns fierce, funny, or thoughtful. Her long, thick hair was her one beauty, but it was
usually bundled into a net, to be out of her way. Round shoulders had Jo, big hands and feet, a
flyaway look to her clothes, and the uncomfortable appearance of a girl who was rapidly
shooting up into a woman and didn't like it. Elizabeth, or Beth, as everyone called her, was a
rosy, smooth-haired, bright-eyed girl of thirteen, with ashy manner, a timid voice, and a peaceful
expression which was seldom disturbed.

Little Women by Louisa May Alcott

Analysing narrative voice in an extract

Example
In this extract, taken from Arthur Conan Doyle’s novel A Study in Scarlet, the narrator Dr.
Watson shares his impressions of Sherlock Holmes with the reader. What is the effect of the
narrative voice in this extract?

As the weeks went by, my interest in him and my curiosity as to his aims in life, gradually
deepened and increased. His very person and appearance were such as to strike the attention of
the most casual observer. In height he was rather over six feet, and so excessively lean that he
seemed to be considerably taller. His eyes were sharp and piercing, save during those intervals of
 torpor to which I have alluded; and his thin, hawk-like nose gave his whole expression an air of
alertness and decision. His chin, too, had the prominence and squareness which mark the man of
determination. His hands were invariably blotted with ink and stained with chemicals, yet he was
possessed of extraordinary delicacy of touch, as I frequently had occasion to observe when I
watched him manipulating his fragile philosophical instruments. The reader may set me down as
a hopeless busybody, when I confess how much this man stimulated my curiosity, and how often
I endeavoured to break through the reticence which he showed on all that concerned himself.
Before pronouncing judgment, however, be it remembered, how objectless was my life, and how
little there was to engage my attention. My health forbade me from venturing out unless the
weather was exceptionally genial, and I had no friends who would call upon me and break the
monotony of my daily existence. Under these circumstances, I eagerly hailed the little mystery
which hung around my companion, and spent much of my time in endeavouring to unravel it.

A Study in Scarlett, Arthur Conan Doyle

 The character of Sherlock Holmes is presented to the reader through the eyes of Dr. Watson
and our impression of his character is controlled by his judgement.
 The choice of vocabulary shows Dr. Watson’s admiration of Holmes. His eyes are “sharp and
piercing…” and he is a “…man of determination…”
 The choice of a bird simile to describe Holmes' appearance, “his thin, hawk-like nose gave his
whole expression an air of alertness and decision…”, shows that the narrative voice is keen to
focus on the character’s intelligence.
 The first person narrator, Dr. Watson, addresses us directly - “The reader may set me down as
a hopeless busybody…” This makes the reader feel more involved in the story and feel a
warmth for the honesty of the narrator.
 Our affection for the narrator is further developed by his confession of having “…no friends
who would call upon me…” We, as the readers, feel as if we are being invited into this world,
sharing the thoughts and feelings of the narrator.
 We share his interest in the mystery of Holmes’s character - “…I eagerly hailed the little
mystery which hung around my companion…” The use of the adverb ‘eagerly’ gives Dr.
Watson an enthusiasm that endears him to the reader.
 The narrative voice of Dr. Watson establishes the reader’s fascination in the character of
Sherlock Holmes - “…my interest in him and my curiosity…” The use of the personal
pronouns here deepens our connection with Watson, the reader also feels a sense of curiosity.
This effect would not have been achieved with the use of the third person perspective.

Language and structure

Language
 Example of a simile from The Hunger Games, Suzanne Collins
When talking about language in prose fiction, there are a number of things you could look for:

 literary techniques, for example similes and metaphors

 other language techniques, for example emotive language, hyperbole or terms of address
 connotations of particular word choices
 language choices within dialogue, for instance if dialect is used to reveal more about a character
 types of words used in the text, for example adjectives , nouns, verbs, adverbs
Many words can be understood in different ways:

 denotations - their dictionary meaning

 connotations - the ideas they link to
For example, the word 'desk' literally denotes a table, but it has connotations of work and study.

Words can reveal a theme, such as death, or love, or create a particular mood in a section of the
narrative.

Patterns in Language

It’s useful to look for any patterns in the language chosen by the writer, as these patterns may
suggest important themes or deeper meanings beyond the obvious. For example:

 Is there a particular semantic field used by the writer? (For example words linked to the military or hospitals.)
 Does the writer repeat any ideas or images? (These could act as a motif in the text.)
 Does the writer favour a particular type of word? (For example using lots of abstract nouns like dream, love,
peace, friendship.)
 Can words or phrases from different parts of the text be linked in some way?

Literary techniques
Writers might include literary techniques to add depth and colour to their writing.

Here are some literary techniques a writer might choose to use in a text:

Device Definition Example Effect

His home is presented

A comparison made
Metaphor "His home was his castle." as a secure and safe
without using 'like' or 'as'.
place to be.

Simile A comparison made using "She had a smile like the Her smile seems bright
‘like’ or ‘as’ to create a
 Device Definition Example Effect

vivid image. sunrise." and full of hope.

A type of imagery in The wind is given the

which non-human human characteristic of
"The wind screamed through
Personification objects, animals or ideas "screaming." This
the trees."
are given human creates an uneasy
characteristics. atmosphere.

The repeated references

Any repeated idea, theme
“rotten apple…feverish heat… to illness could
or image that has a
Motif plague of flies…sickened symbolise the moral
symbolic significance in
trees…” sickness within the
the text.
narrative.

The repetition
emphasises the effort
Words, phrases or ideas "Stephen tried and tried and
Repetition exerted and Stephen’s
are repeated for effect. tried to get the ball in the net."
desperation at his failed
attempts.

“Phoebe saw that the garden

A number of connected was over-flowing with The listing gives a vivid
Listing items written one after the foxgloves, lupins, daisies, sun- sense of the garden’s
other. flowers and pretty weeds of all abundance and beauty.
shapes and heights.”

The repetition of the same

The repetition of the ‘s’
sounds (mainly "The suffocating steam filled
Alliteration sound adds to the
consonants) usually at the the room."
discomfort of the room.
beginning of words.

We get a sense of the

The sounds of words to
"Howling, the cat ran through cat’s terror from the
Onomatopoeia express or underline their
the house." sound of the word
meaning.
"howling."

When you identify a literary technique or other language devices in a text, think about how
they might be linked to a theme, setting or character.
Example
In this opening from Margaret Atwood’s novel Alias Grace, the main character Grace describes
a dream-like vision.
 What is the effect of the language choices in this extract?

Out of the gravel there are peonies growing. They come up through the loose grey pebbles, their
buds testing the air like snails’ eyes, then swelling and opening, huge dark-red flowers all
shining and glossy like satin. Then they burst and fall to the ground.

In the one instant before they come apart they are like the peonies in the front garden at Mr.
Kinnear’s, that first day, only those were white. Nancy is cutting them. She wore a pale dress
with pink rosebuds and a triple-flounced skirt, and a straw bonnet that hid her face. She carried a
flat basket, to put the flower in; she bent from the hips like a lady, holding her waist straight.
When she heard us and turned to look, she put her hand up to her throat as if startled.

Alias Grace, Margaret Atwood

Analysis notes

 The frequent use of ‘ing’ verbs in the opening paragraph gives the flowers a sinister energy
and movement: “…growing…testing…swelling…opening…shining…”.
 The writer’s choice of language to describe the flowers gives the setting a dream-like
appearance.
 The strange simile “...testing the air like snails’ eyes…” adds to the dream-like feel.
 The motif of the peonies seems particularly important and the writer gives them a symbolic
significance. For example, the peonies at the start are "dark-red", but in the next paragraph "…
those were white."
 The white peonies, perhaps symbolising innocence, are linked to the character of Nancy. This
image of innocence is reinforced by the "pale dress with pink rosebuds."
 The character of Nancy has her clothes described in detail: “..triple-flounced skirt, and a straw
bonnet…” This links to the simile “…like a lady…” and suggests that the character of Nancy
is elegant and well-dressed.
 The flowers are linked to the feminine here, but there is also a sinister mood linked to the red
peonies. This sinister mood is reinforced by the phrase “…as if startled.”
 The calm image of a woman cutting flowers in contrasted with the disturbing image of the red
peonies. The effect may unsettle the reader.

Structure of fiction texts

Structure can refer to the order of words and ideas within:

 a sentence
 a paragraph
 an extract
 a whole text
Think about the effect the structure creates; remember to focus on how the reader responds to the
structure of the text. Consider how the writer is using structure to manipulate the reader’s
response.

Questions to consider:

 Where does this extract fit into the longer text – is it an opening or ending?
 Why are the paragraphs ordered in the way they are?
 How does the focus of each paragraph change?
 Is it important for the reader to know certain bits of information before they get to the next part of the text?
 Are there any links between the beginning and the end of the text?
 Are there any repeated images?
 Is there a significant change in an attitude, character or setting?
 Is there a change of perspective?

Some structural devices within prose fiction

Repetition – of words, phrases or whole sentences.

Connectives – eg meanwhile, finally, although. These could be used to shift the reader’s focus.

Sentence types – eg multi-clause or single clause. For example, a multi-clause sentence could be
used to build up layers of description to create a vivid setting.

Sentence length – eg short to show tension.

Paragraph length – eg single line paragraphs to focus the reader.

Change of tense – eg from present to past.

Narrative structure

Fictional narratives may also follow an overall structure, which may fit broadly into typical
stages.

Exposition – the setting of the scene for the reader, this could be a description of setting or
the backstory of a character.

Crisis point or climax – an exciting or tense part of the text.

Resolution – the conclusion of the narrative, where conflicts are resolved or meaning is
revealed.

In a short extract, only one or two of these of these stages might be evident. For example, if the
extract is from the opening of a short story there may only be an exposition stage.
 These stages are not always in this order; a writer may choose to begin with a climax or crisis
point.

Example
This extract is taken from the end of a short story called The Tell Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe.
In this section the narrator is convinced he can hear the beating heart of his murdered victim
under the floor boards.

How has the writer structured this text to increase the sense of tension?

No doubt I now grew very pale; but I talked more fluently, and with a heightened voice. Yet the
sound increased -- and what could I do? It was a low, dull, quick sound -- much such a sound as
a watch makes when enveloped in cotton. I gasped for breath -- and yet the officers heard it not. I
talked more quickly -- more vehemently; but the noise steadily increased. I arose and argued
about trifles, in a high key and with violent gesticulations; but the noise steadily increased. Why
would they not be gone? I paced the floor to and fro with heavy strides, as if excited to fury by
the observations of the men -- but the noise steadily increased. Oh God! what could I do? I
foamed -- I raved -- I swore! I swung the chair upon which I had been sitting, and grated it upon
the boards, but the noise arose over all and continually increased. It grew louder -- louder --
louder! And still the men chatted pleasantly, and smiled. Was it possible they heard not?
Almighty God! -- no, no! They heard! -- they suspected! -- they knew! -- they were making a
mockery of my horror! -- this I thought, and this I think. But anything was better than this agony!
Anything was more tolerable than this derision! I could bear those hypocritical smiles no longer!
I felt that I must scream or die! and now -- again! -- hark! louder! louder! louder! louder!

"Villains!" I shrieked, "dissemble no more! I admit the deed! -- tear up the planks! here, here! --
It is the beating of his hideous heart!"

The Tell Tale Heart, Edgar Allan Poe

Analysis
 The structure of the text allows the reader to share the narrator’s increased agitation.
 In the first long paragraph the writer builds the tension, as the narrator’s emotions become more extreme.
 The whole first paragraph has the structure of a fragmented thought process to show the narrator’s disturbed
mind. The multi-clause sentences further enhance the impression of this frantic mind. The frequent use of
dashes also adds to the feeling of broken and jumping thoughts, “I gasped for breath -- and yet the officers
heard it not. I talked more quickly -- more vehemently…”
 The calm, simple sentence “And still the men chatted pleasantly and smiled…” shows the reader that this frantic
energy is confined to the mind of the narrator.
 This is linked to later in the paragraph the narrator mentions their “…hypocritical smiles…”, further emphasising
the paranoia of the character.
 The repetition of the personal pronouns ‘I’ and ‘they’ at the start of sentences shows the narrator’s focus and
intensity.
 The writer uses punctuation to structure the narrator’s changing emotional state, at first question marks are
used frequently, “What could I do?” is repeated to show his desperation.
 The abundance of exclamation marks later in the paragraph show his extreme emotion, as he loses the little
control he had - “no, no! They heard! -- they suspected! --they knew! --they were making a mockery of my
horror!”
 The dramatic repetition of “…louder! louder! louder! louder!...” gives a manic impression of the narrative voice
and increases the tension for the reader.
 The resolution in the text is reached in the final paragraph, when the narrator manically confesses his crime, “I
admit the deed!”
 The use of dialogue here breaks the tension of the narrator’s thoughts and leads to a final climax of emotion.
 The alliterative “…hideous heart.” makes a gruesome, dramatic final impression on the reader.

Annotating texts
Annotating is a useful way to keep a track of what you notice while you’re reading – the notes
and marks you make can focus on particular details in the text. For example, if you were
focusing on setting, you could circle all the words and phrases used to describe a place.

There are many ways to annotate texts. Try out different approaches to see what works best for
you. Examples of common techniques include:

 circling or underlining words or phrases that are interesting or important and writing notes in the margin
 using different coloured highlighters to pick out different ideas, techniques or details
 using one margin to make a note of literary devices and the other margin to add your own responses
Closely annotating texts is an effective way to practise analysing a piece of fiction.

However, in exam conditions, annotations need to be brief and a quick way of responding to a
new text. You can use your annotations to pick out details from the text and then develop your
analysis of these details in your written response.

Tips for annotating quickly in exams

 Use abbreviations for longer words (eg allit for alliteration).

 Don’t worry about making it look pretty - make your marks and notes functional.
 Use marks that you understand, for example arrows or question marks to focus your attention on certain
details.
 Don’t worry about annotating everything: be selective.

What to look for when annotating

 Annotating structure

Read the text and look for patterns in the structure, for example:

 Sentence length and type - eg single or multi-clause sentences.

 Paragraph lengths and structure - eg focus on how the paragraph opens and closes.
 Repeated words and phrases.
 The order of ideas in the extract - eg where does the narrative start? Does the focus shift?

Annotating language and literary techniques

 Highlight any interesting language features in the text.

 Pick out examples of literary devices that stand out because they’re unusual, or because they link closely to the
character, theme or setting.
 Highlight individual words to explore closely - those with particular connotations or ones that seem to relate to
the theme of the text.

Annotating characterisation and voice

 Pick out key elements which show the development of characters.

 Look for phrases that reveal key details about characters. For example, you might highlight an example of where
a character’s appearance is linked to a theme.
 Highlight points where narrative perspective is shown through the language.
 Is the author using the perspective for a particular effect? Pick out examples to support your ideas.

Annotating for themes and ideas

 Highlight any words or phrases that link to the main themes or a particular semantic field.

Example
Here is an example of some selective annotations. The student is focused on the language
choices in this extract:

 metaphor - ‘Nana’s fine hair floated in a halo around her head’ – positive connotations
 sibilance – the repeated use of the letter s adds softness here
 personification – their ‘dark fingers’ is sinister, but then contrasts with the adverb ‘gently’
 personal pronouns – the use of ‘our’, ‘us’ and ‘we’ – sense of family
 tricolon of three single clause sentences – creates rhythm and interest for reader
Avoid making so many annotations that you can no longer read the text! Be selective, and pick out the details
that interest you.
 Responding to a fiction text
How to analyse a fiction extract
In an analytical response, you should show how language and structure create meaning. You
could also explore the effect on the reader. An analytical response uses evidence from the text to
make clear points.

Whatever the focus of the task, aim to focus on HOW the writer has used specific techniques or
choices to create meaning, rather than WHAT the text is saying or WHO it is about.

The key to giving a relevant response is to focus on the question. What are you being asked to
do? Circle the key words in the question and remember your focus as you start reading the
extract.

An exam question might focus on:

 characters
 narrative voice
 themes and ideas
 language
 structure
 the effect on the reader
The next stage is to annotate your extract and find evidence to support your answer. Highlight,
circle or underline key parts of the text that you will be able to use as evidence for your response.

When looking at an extract, try and read it more than once. First read the entire extract from
beginning to end and annotate any language or structural details that interest you. If you have
time, do another read-through annotating other important words and phrases.

1.

Understanding the question

The key to a successful response is to focus on the question and understand what you are being
asked to do. Below are a few examples of the types of questions you may be required to answer.
Use the marks available for each question as a guide on how much to write.

Example question one

From lines 1 to 5, identify the phrase that shows why the boy is hungry. (1 mark)
This type of question is not looking for a close analysis of the text or a detailed response. This
task aims to check your reading skills and ability to pick out the relevant phrase from the
fictional text. Don’t spend too long on this type of question - the number of marks available
should be your guide. These types of questions usually have a low number of marks. Remember
to read the question very carefully – this question is asking you to focus onlyon lines 1 – 5. It’s
also important to only use one phrase in your answer.

Example question two

From lines 10-16, give two ways the character’s behaviour shows that she feels nervous.
You can use your own words or a quotation from the text. (2 marks)

This type of question is asking you to find evidence to show the character’s emotions. You are
not being asked to analyse the evidence, just to show that you can select the right bit of text. You
can write the evidence in your own words or use a direct quotation from the text. Remember to
check the question carefully – you are only being asked to use lines 10-16 and only find two bits
of evidence.

Example question three

In lines 15 – 20, how does the writer use language and structure to create tension? (6
marks)

If you’re asked to focus on a particular section of an extract, then focus your analysis on that bit.
When you’re looking at language remember to examine particular words and phrases used. What
patterns of words do you notice – for this question, are there lots of words connected with
uncertainty or fear?

Look at sentence structures and notice how the writer is using these to create tension. Are there
lots of short sentences to build pace? Do longer sentences keep us hanging on?

How do the characters behave and respond to their situation? Notice dialogue as well as
descriptions.

As well as action, think about how characters contribute to tension, how setting is important and
how ideas are presented by the writer.

Example question four

In this extract, the writer wants the reader to feel sympathy for the main character.
Evaluate how successfully this is achieved. (15 marks)

This question is asking for a judgement, so you are evaluating as well as analysing. Your main
task is to explain the extent to which you agree with this opinion and how the extract makes the
reader feel. You still need to use quotations to support each point you make - look closely at the
word choices the author makes and explore how these affect the reader.

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Responding to a fiction text

When responding to a fiction text you will be asked to focus on a particular
area, picking out specific details or responding more fully with a close
analysis.
Part of
English Language
Analysing fiction

 Revise


Video

Test

1.

2. 1
3. 2
4. 3
5. 4
6. 5

7.

Structuring a paragraph
Use each paragraph to make at least one main point. A paragraph could contain:
 a link to the focus of the question - try and use the key word or phrase from the question
 some evidence from the text to support what you think - this will probably include something on
language or structure
 a discussion of the evidence, and links to any other possible evidence
Using a few connectives could help link your ideas:

 Firstly...
 On the one hand...
 On the other hand...
 Similarly...
 In contrast...
 However...
 Alternatively...
 Finally...
There are lots of different ways to structure a paragraph when analysing fiction, but don’t be too
tied down to one formula. It’s important to vary your structure depending on your ideas and how
you choose to link evidence together.

Here are just a few common formulas to be aware of:

 PEE - point/evidence/explain
 PEEL - point/evidence/explain/link to point
 PEA - point/evidence/analysis
 SEAL - state your point/evidence/analyse/link
 WET - words/effect/techniques
 RATS - reader’s response/author’s intention/theme/structure
Think about which ones you find useful. What are the limitations of each approach?

Using quotations and close analysis

To support your points, you need to use quotations and examples. Quotations should be kept
short and to the point. Using just a few words is more powerful than copying out chunks of text -
it shows you are being selective. You should also be careful to copy accurately.

Put the quotation inside your own sentence, rather than putting it in the middle of a page and
then commenting on it. This is called embedding a quotation.
 So rather than:

"He flew like a butterfly." This is an example of a simile, which shows that he was light and
graceful.

Or:

The author uses similes, eg "he flew like a butterfly."

You would write:

The author uses the simile of the boy flying "like a butterfly" to convey the impression that he is
light and graceful.

The author uses the simile of the boy flying "like a butterfly" to convey the impression that he is
light and graceful.

Making the most of quotations

A close analysis of the language in the quotation can be used to support your point.

There are several ways you can do this:

 Focus on a word from the quotation and write about why it was chosen by the writer.
 Write about the connotations of the word, eg the word ‘snake’ could have connotations of evil and might be
used by the writer to create an ominous atmosphere. The word ‘home’ has the dictionary meaning of ‘a place
where someone lives’, but the word also has positive connotations of warmth and family.
 The context of a word will also be important when you are analysing its effect. How the word is used in the
sentence and paragraph may affect the connotations of that word.
 The quotation may contain a metaphor, simile, or other language technique – what is the effect of the
technique?
 Make sure you name the literary technique as part of your analysis.
 Remember that you don’t need to give a definition of the technique - just focus on the effect.
 Do the language choices in the quotation link to other parts of the extract? Can you see a pattern in the way
the writer is using language?
 What is the reader’s response to the language in the quotation?

Example analysis
During the whole of a dull, dark, and soundless day in the autumn of the year, when the clouds
hung oppressively low in the heavens, I had been passing alone, on horseback, through a
singularly dreary tract of country; and at length found myself, as the shades of the evening drew
on, within view of the melancholy House of Usher. I know not how it was - but, with the first
glimpse of the building, a sense of insufferable gloom pervaded my spirit. I say insufferable; for
the feeling was unrelieved by any of that half-pleasurable, because poetic, sentiment, with which
the mind usually receives even the sternest natural images of the desolate or terrible. I looked
upon the scene before me - upon the mere house, and the simple landscape features of the
domain - upon the bleak walls - upon the vacant eye-like windows - upon a few rank sedges -
and upon a few white trunks of decayed trees - with an utter depression of soul which I can
compare to no earthly sensation more properly than to the after-dream of the reveller upon opium
- the bitter lapse into everyday life - the hideous dropping off of the veil. There was an iciness, a
sinking, a sickening of the heart - an unredeemed dreariness of thought which no goading of the
imagination could torture into aught of the sublime. What was it - I paused to think - what was it
that so unnerved me in the contemplation of the House of Usher?

The Fall of the House of Usher, Edgar Allan Poe

Sample questions and answers

Example question one

From lines 1-5, identify the phrase that shows the reader what time of day it is. (1 mark)

“…as the shades of the evening drew on…”

This response answers the question precisely, using lines 1-5 to find the exact phrase that shows
what time of day it was.

The quotation is not explained or analysed – the question does not require a developed response.

Example question two

In lines 10-16, give two examples that show the narrator is feeling negative. You may use
your own words or quotation from the text. (2 marks)

“…utter depression of soul...”

 “…a sinking, a sickening of the heart…”

This response uses two quotations from the text. They are well selected and are evidence to show
that the narrator is feeling negative. It’s important to quote selectively to show you are picking
out the right detail.

Example question three

In lines 1- 11, how does the writer use language to create a sense of the setting? (6 marks)

The writer’s choice of language leaves the impression of a gloomy setting, “dull, dark, and
soundless day…” The subtle alliteration and monosyllabic adjectives give the description an
abrupt, stark tone. The use of pathetic fallacy, “The cloud hung oppressively low…” also
creates a negative feeling, as if the weather mirrors the character’s depressed emotions. The
house is described as having “vacant eye-like windows..” This eerie simile creates a death-like
feel with the use the adjective ‘vacant’.

 This paragraph gets straight into the close analysis - no introduction is needed for this type of question.
 The response is focused on the task, analysing language and setting.
 Every point is supported by evidence from lines 1-11 of the extract.
 Details of the language are linked and the effect is analysed closely.
 At least one more paragraph would be needed to fully answer this question, the 6 marks suggests a longer
answer is appropriate here.

Non-fiction texts

A non-fiction text is based on facts. It is really any text which isn’t fiction (a made-up story or
poetry). Non-fiction texts come in a huge variety of types. You find them everywhere in life,
from the back of the cereal packet at breakfast, to a text book at the library. They can range from
a newspaper article to a review of a new computer game. They are written for many different
purposes, and are aimed at many different people or audiences.

Non-fiction texts include:

 advertisements
 reviews
 letters
 diaries
 newspaper articles
 information leaflets
 magazine articles

Literary non-fiction

Literary non-fiction is a type of writing which uses similar techniques as fiction to create an
interesting piece of writing about real events. Techniques such as withholding information, vivid
imagery and rhetorical devices can all be used. These techniques help to create non-fiction which
is enjoyable and exciting to read. Some travel writing, autobiographies, or essays that consider a
particular viewpoint are key examples of literary non-fiction. Their main purpose is to entertain
whilst they inform about factual events or information.

Literary non-fiction texts include:

 feature articles
 essays
 travel writing
 accounts of famous events
 sketches (normally a fact file profile that gives key information about a person, place or event)
 autobiographies (where you write about yourself) or biographies (where someone else writes about you). These
texts may be written by sportspeople, politicians, celebrities as well as people who aren’t well-known

Biography

Pelé's autobiography tells the story of his life and career as an international footballer
A biography is writing about someone’s life. If someone is writing about their own life it
becomes an autobiography.Biography and autobiography might focus on a specific part of
someone’s life and experiences.
 A biography is usually written both to inform and to entertain. This means it is a mix of factual
information and creative writing. Often biographies are of famous people, eg singers, models or
sports personalities. However, sometimes biographies of ordinary people who aren’t well known
can be interesting because of an extraordinary experience that they’ve had, such as surviving
against the odds or doing something heroic.

Example
This is the opening paragraph of Claire Tomalin’s biography of Charles Dickens, the novelist.
The young man she is describing is Dickens, aged 37.

14 January 1840, London. An inquest is being held at Marylebone Workhouse, a muddled

complex of buildings spread over a large area between the Marylebone Road and Paddington
Street. The Beadle, a parish officer responsible for persuading householders to do their duty
as jurors at such inquests, has assembled twelve men. Most of them are middle-aged local
tradesmen, but one stands out among them as different. He is young and slight, smartly dressed
and good-looking, neither tall nor short at five foot nine inches, with dark hair falling in curls
over his forehead and collar. He is a new resident who has just moved into a fine airy house with
a large garden, close to Regent’s Park at York Gate: it is No. 1 Devonshire Terrace, from which
the Beadle has made haste to summon him to his duty.

Charles Dickens, Claire Tomalin

Analysis
How does Tomalin, the writer of this extract, introduce us to Charles Dickens?

 The extract begins by raising questions for the reader – why is there an inquest? How will
Dickens be involved?
 The focus then shifts to the jury where “one stands out”, suggesting that he doesn’t fit in – and
is more significant than the others. The writer creates suspense, as we don’t know whether this
man is Dickens yet.
 Due to the close focus on this character, the reader may make the connection to him being
Charles Dickens.
 The writer lists details, eg “smartly dressed” and “fine airy house”. The adjectives “smartly”
and “fine” imply that he is quite wealthy.
 Descriptive language, eg “good-looking” with “dark hair falling in curls over his forehead”
present Dickens in a romantic way, like the main character in a story.

Information leaflet
Information leaflets normally focus on a particular subject. In leaflets it’s not just the content and
language that are important, but also the layout and organisation.
 While it is unlikely that you will answer a question about a leaflet in your exams, this example
has been included because you should revise using a wide range of text types.

Take notice of how non-fiction texts all around you achieve their purpose and appeal to their
audience!

Example

Get baking

Analysis
Key features of this leaflet include:

 The heading of the leaflet uses imperative language to give the reader a direct command – “Get Baking!” The
subheading “to help you get baking” suggests that the intended audience are people who are new to this
activity.
 The opening ‘welcome’ message from celebrity chefs will appeal to fans of The Great British Bake Off. It
introduces the purpose of the leaflet – to persuade readers to support the BBC Children In Need charity through
baking.
 Sub-headings guide the reader through each section – some information is organised with numbers and bullet
points to break down instructions.
 The tone is reassuring to the reader if they are not necessarily an expert “All the recipes in this guide give step-
by-step advice to help you bake beautifully”. The personal pronoun “you” is direct and inviting.
 The language is enthusiastic - the rule of three highlights the benefits of baking as “relaxing, rewarding and
great fun”.
 Assertive language like “nothing beats the taste” and “it’s really not difficult” makes the reader feel they should
have a go.
 A range of adjectives – “perfect, tasty, crusty, hot and delicious” – appeal to the senses, almost making the
reader hungry as they imagine eating the food!
 A fun tone is reinforced by alliteration – “crazy for cake”, “soft spot for bread” and “passion for puddings” –
which builds up to the whole purpose of the text.

Letter
Letters are handwritten or printed on paper for many purposes and audiences:

 they can be informal, eg to a friend or family member - to keep in touch or say thank you
 they can be formal, such as a letter of complaint or a letter from the bank explaining the
features of your bank account
 they are structured to show that the text is directed at someone, using a salutation ‘Dear
NAME…’ and an appropriate ending ‘Yours sincerely…’
Open letters

 An ‘open letter’ is a letter which is either addressed to the public or to a specific person, (like a
politician), but is published in a public forum such as a popular newspaper with a big
audience. An open letter is often used to protest about something.
Example
Schools might send letters home when teachers want to praise their students in a more formal
way. This is a letter written by the Head of Geography to a student’s parents.

19 July 2016

Dear Mr and Mrs Smith

Jonathan Smith – Form 10ABC

I am always pleased to hear about students who are committed to the study of Geography. Miss
Jones has brought Jonathan to my attention for the effort he has shown over the course of this
term.

Geography is a challenging subject, which requires students to work hard to increase their
knowledge and be able to apply new skills.
 I would like to congratulate Jonathan for the level of attainment he has achieved due to the level
of application he has shown. I hope that he will continue to make good progress in Geography as
a result.

Yours sincerely

Mr L Mountain

Head of Geography

Analysis
This letter:

 Has a conventional salutation to create a polite register.

 Opens with a topic sentence so that the purpose of the letter is clear.
 Uses a tone that is formal, eg “brought to my attention” – this shows respect to the student’s
achievements.
 Includes words used in schools, eg "attainment", "progress", "subject" and "term" as the
intended audience will be familiar with these specialist terms.
 Uses adjectives to highlight the student’s success, eg “challenging” and “hard” implies a lot of
effort.
 Closes with the conventional sign off “Yours sincerely” to show that the message is genuine
and important to the sender. This maintains the formal tone.

Review
A review gives an opinion about anything from a restaurant to a concert.

The most common types of review are film and book reviews, but people also review music,
television programmes, theatre performances and computer games.

Critics often write reviews for a living. They are knowledgeable on certain topics, eg films or
music. We trust their judgement and may decide to read a book or watch a film because they
persuade us to do so.

All reviews share a number of different purposes. For example, a film review needs:

 to inform - the review needs to tell people who is in the film, who it is by and where or when
readers can see it
 to describe - the review should describe the story, characters and some of the action - without
spoiling the plot or giving too much away
 to entertain - to provide the reader with their opinion in a way that readers will enjoy, eg with
a lively or witty tone
 to analyse - a good review weighs up whether the film is good or not, giving opinions backed
up with reasons and evidence
 to advise - the review should recommend to the reader whether or not they should go to see
the film
Audience
The audience of a review varies - this depends on where it is published.

The audience might be specific or general. For example, a specialist computer games magazine
will assume their readers have a major interest in gaming and an understanding of
specialist terminology, such as spawning and simulator. However, a review of a game in a
national newspaper, with a much wider audience, would need to simplify the language or explain
the terms.

Reviews of popular new books and films aim to reach nationwide audiences - but a local
newspaper will review a performance at their own theatre, aimed at local readers.

Example
This is a review of the film The Golden Compass.

A review of a children’s film is probably aimed at parents, who will want to know whether to
take their children to see it.

The Golden Compass

Reviewed by Stella Papamichael

Free will is the object of the game in The Golden Compass, a big budget exercise in orienteering
where witches and polar bears point the way to enlightenment. You'll have to look between the
CG seams to find the original intent of Philip Pullman's atheistic novel, but this isn't the
overriding problem. It's that writer/director Chris Weitz doesn't convey a strong enough sense of
purpose.

Thank goodness for the star presence of Dakota Blue Richards. She is thoroughly engaging as
Lyra, a young girl singled out in prophecy as 'the one' to save all others from some awful yet
indeterminate fate. It all sounds a bit messianic really, except that organised religion, represented
by The Magisterium, is a force for evil. Nicole Kidman does the ominous eyebrow lifting as a
guardian of the establishment who kidnaps children to wrest them from their 'daemons' (the
animal sidekicks who embody their better judgment). Among the abductees is Lyra's best friend,
and so begins the voyage north to find him.

Many questions raised

Daniel Craig has little to do as Lyra's scientifically minded uncle except hint at potential sequels.
The draw is in a simple story of friendship and Lyra's journey of self-discovery. The line-up of
curious characters she meets along the way helps to lighten Pullman's otherwise dark material.
 Sam Elliot is wryly amusing as a cowboy aeronaut and the spectacle of Lyra being carried across
the arctic wastelands on the back of a polar bear (voiced by Ian McKellen) will appeal to the
child in everyone. Towards the end, some impressively realised battle scenes up the excitement.
Disappointingly though, all this magic and mystery fails to lead to any grand unveiling. There
are just too many questions raised and not enough answered. Approach this not as a lesson in the
facts of life, just a bit of childish escapism.

The Golden Compass is out in the UK on 5 December.

Analysis
How has the writer structured the text to interest the reader?

1. The review opens with a focus on the fantasy characters and genre of the film, engaging
readers with the idea of the film pointing you “to enlightenment” – a journey of discovery.
2. The opening paragraph ends with a short statement summing up the critic’s conclusion that
it “doesn’t convey a strong enough sense of purpose”. This raises the question - why not?
3. The focus shifts to the actors and Richards’ “star presence” – this balances the good and
bad points. Finishing the paragraph with “the voyage north” continues the sense of a
journey.
4. The subheading “Many Questions Raised” is repeated in the final paragraph and highlights
the critic’s conclusion that there are “not enough answered”.
5. She balances this with positives – “will appeal to the child in everyone” and “childish
escapism” – leaving the reader to decide for themselves whether they want to see it.
6. The review concludes with the key dates. This informs the reader when they can see it.
How does the writer use language to influence the reader?

 The critic begins with a pun on the film’s ‘compass’ title, describing it as “a big budget
exercise in orienteering” – implying that a lot of money has been spent producing a simple
“find your way” story.
 A disappointed tone states that you “have to look between the CG seams” to find the “intent”
of Pullman’s novel – as if the focus on special effects means the message of the story has been
lost.
 Positive language choices, eg “star presence” and “engaging” are more upbeat as the review
appreciates the acting.
 Humour is used to entertain the reader – “Kidman does the ominous eyebrow lifting” –
the caricature of the villain is amusing rather than frightening. This is more appealing to
children.
 The contrasting adverbs – “impressively realised battle scenes” and “disappointingly…fails to
lead to any grand unveiling” - captures the feeling of anticlimax the writer experienced when
watching the film. A direct statement reinforces this – “too many questions” and “not enough
answered”.
 Describing the film as “childish escapism” suggests that it can still be enjoyed if we don’t
expect too much from it. “Escapism” implies a light relief from reality - for both adults and
children.

Newspaper articles

There are several different types of newspaper articles:

 News Reports - these are found at the front of a newspaper. They inform readers about things
that are happening in the world or in the local area. They will be full of facts, like names, dates
and places, as well as points of view, eg “Local opinion is still divided over plans to open a
new shopping centre.” Reports tend to have a more formal, neutral tone.
 Feature articles - these explore the issues raised by news stories in more depth. For example,
a report about young children left home alone could inspire a feature article on the difficulties
of finding childcare providers in the local area. A feature article tends to be more opinionated
and less formal than a report, often taking a personal point of view.
 Editorials, columns and opinion pieces - these are pieces by 'personality' writers, often
celebrities in other fields. They might be there to inform (because the writer's expert opinion is
valued), or they might be there to entertain (because the writer has a comic or interesting way
of describing everyday life). Columnists develop a style of their own – for
example, polemical or sarcastic. They create this style through vocabulary choices
and rhetorical devices. They might use informal language to convey their idiolect. This
individual style appeals to their audience.
Tabloid and broadsheet newspapers
The type of newspaper that publishes the article influences how it is written:

 If it is in a tabloid it will have shorter sentences and paragraphs and use more basic vocabulary
– reports are sensationalisedusing emotive language and they may focus more on celebrities
and gossip, eg The Sun and The Daily Mirror.
 If it is in a broadsheet the sentences will be longer and more complicated, and the vocabulary
will be more advanced. The tone is more formal and serious as they focus on important
national and international issues, eg The Times and The Telegraph.
 Some newspapers also have particular political points of view, which might affect how they
report events in the news.
Example
This is a news report from The Financial Times, which is a broadsheet paper. Only part of the
report is printed here. It is about children in Singapore being the best in the world at maths.

July 22, 2016

Why Singapore’s kids are so good at maths

The city-state regularly tops global league tables. What’s the secret of its achievement?

Sie Yu Chuah smiles when asked how his parents would react to a low test score. “My parents
are not that strict but they have high expectations of me,” he says. “I have to do well. Excel at
my studies. That’s what they expect from me.” The cheerful, slightly built 13-year-old is a pupil
at Admiralty, a government secondary school in the northern suburbs of Singapore that opened
in 2002.

At meetings of the world’s education ministers, when it is Singapore’s turn to speak, “everyone
listens very closely”, says Andreas Schleicher, head of the OECD’s education assessment
programme.

But what is it about Singapore’s system that enables its children to outperform their international
peers? And how easy will it be for other countries to import its success?

A densely populated speck of land in Southeast Asia, Singapore is bordered by Malaysia to the
north and the leviathan archipelago of Indonesia to the south. The former British trading post
gained self-rule in 1959 and was briefly part of a Malaysian federation before becoming fully
independent in 1965. A sense of being dwarfed by vast neighbours runs deep in the national
psyche, inspiring both fear and pride. In a speech to trade union activists on May Day last year,
prime minister Lee Hsien Loong told citizens: “To survive, you have to be exceptional.” The
alternative, he warned, was being “pushed around, shoved about, trampled upon; that’s the end
of Singapore and the end of us”.

The Financial Times, Jeevan Vasagar

Analysis
This article:

 uses the headline to make a direct statement, “Why Singapore’s kids are so good at maths” –
the purpose of the report is to explain why
 the language “global” league tables highlights the international success – followed by
a rhetorical question, “What’s the secret of its achievement?” to interest the reader
 the conversational tone avoids being too formal, eg “kids” and “what’s the secret” – the
audience might be parents as well as educational experts
 more rhetorical questions prepare the reader for “answers” provided by the report
 a metaphor “speck of land” makes Singapore sound tiny – the reader is even more amazed at
its huge success – and its tiny size is reinforced by the description that it is “dwarfed” by its
neighbours
 imperative language from its Prime Minister explains the efforts behind the brilliant maths
results, “You have to be exceptional”
 the extract ends with a rule of three, “pushed around, shovedabout, trampled upon” – the
aggressive verbs imply the struggle Singapore students face if they do not achieve highly at
school

Diaries and blogs

A diary is a personal record of events, thoughts and feelings – usually arranged

in chronological order. They can be handwritten and private – or might be uploaded to the
internet as a ‘blog’. The origin of the word ‘blog’ is as an abbreviation for ‘web-log’ – that is, an
online diary of sorts.

Blogs are written by many people all over the world, for lots of different purposes. They are
often informative and interactive, enabling readers to post their thoughts or ask questions. Some
blogs focus on topics of interest, such as health, music or art. ‘How to’ tutorials are popular too,
eg for styling hair or crafts. These blogs appeal to followers with similar interests, creating a very
specific audience base.

Diaries and blogs:

 Are usually quite personal – written in the first person from the writer’s point of view.
 The language can be more creative (literary non-fiction) in a blog. This could be to entertain
or to help the reader imagine events and feelings.
 The tone can be formal or informal depending on the intended purpose and audience, eg a
travel blog might be chatty to encourage the reader to share fun experiences. It could also be
serious if recounting travels through places where there is extreme poverty.
 Tenses can vary – diaries and blogs tend to be past tense but can use present tense to bring an
event to life for the reader.
Blogs can also be used by organisations to communicate informally with their audience. Because
they are online, they can be regular, and respond to events quickly.

It is unlikely that you will answer a question about a blog in your exams, but diary extracts can
be either 19th century or modern.

Example
This is part of a post from a blog about one girl’s interest in fashion.

Since she was just 13, Tavi Gevinson has attracted international attention from the fashion
industry, after the New York Times picked up on her fashion blog Style Rookie. She is now 20
and is the editor for online magazine Rookie alongside her blog.

STYLE ROOKIE

APRIL 21, 2016

Today I am 20. The Crucible, in which I play Mary Warren, opened at the Walter Kerr Theatre
three weeks ago, March 31st—also the eight-year anniversary of this blog. I have a lot of trouble
comprehending that writing Style Rookie led to writing for other places, then starting Rookie,
then being able to audition for plays that I love and to be inside of them for long periods of time,
which is an inexplicably wonderful way to live a life. But I am really really really insanely
thankful for all of it, and many of you have followed for a LONG time, and that means a lot.
Right now, I'm very slowly writing something that I hope will effectively articulate the
strangeness of the way these all overlap—the fictions we get to try on via diary/blog-keeping,
and acting, and personal style. But that's a longterm hermit project. I just wanted to mention it
because in my attempt to briefly list recent stuff I've been up to, I may sound callous, but: None
of this goes unexamined or unappreciated.

Since my last update:

I went on tour for Rookie Yearbook Four and got to meet Rookies across the U.S. It's always
surreal and the very best heart-nutrition to see long-time readers and meet new ones!

Recent Editor's Letters for Rookie about stuff like: Glory, Assembly, Potential, Truth or Dare,
and Cult of Personality. In my letter for the theme On Display, I also wrote about David Bowie.

I am also hanging out with the coolest/cutest girls in the world in the video for Carly Rae
Jepsen's song "Boy Problems," which Petra Collins, Rookie photographer and personal partner-
in-crime, directed.
 Style Rookie, Tavi Gevinson

Analysis

 The blog's title “Style Rookie” is informal, appealing to a younger audience who might see
themselves as “rookies” (beginners) too.
 It opens in the present tense “Today I am 20” – this signals a significant date on which she has
chosen to stop and think about the end of her teenage years.
 The first person creates a personal and conversational feel – like Tavi is speaking directly to
the reader.
 Listing the events “then…then” quickens the pace to convey how quickly everything seems to
have happened to her.
 Alliteration reinforces the positive statement “wonderful way to live a life”.
 Unusual metaphors eg, “hermit project” and “heart-nutrition” shape a distinct idiolect – giving
the reader a sense of Tavi’s originality and ways of speaking.
 A young, fun tone is created with repetition “I am really really really insanely grateful”. The
word “insanely” is slang for ‘very’ and implies she cannot control her happiness.
 Further informal words and phrases, eg “stuff”, “hanging out” and “coolest” continue the
youthful register.

Essay
Essays are not only written by students. People who are considered experts in a particular topic
often write essays to show a new viewpoint on something. For example, authors like Charles
Dickens and George Orwell wrote essays to express their ideas about topics, such as politics and
poverty. The essay is a form of literary non-fiction in which a writer expresses an opinion on
something, or makes an argument, in a creative form.

Essays:

 have a clear structure that introduces their idea, develops their viewpoint using different points
to support them, and concludes with a summary of the arguments
 can have a formal tone and serious purpose, eg in The Ugly Tourist, Jamaica Kincaid criticises
the way that tourism ignores the poverty and hardships found in some tourist locations
 can be more personal, eg in My Misspent Youth, Meghan Daum shares her dreams and then the
difficult realities of trying to be a successful writer in New York
Example
This extract is the beginning of an essay by George Orwell, the novelist, who was also a famous
essay writer. This essay is called Politics and the English Language. It was published in 1946, in
a literary magazine. It criticises the ugliness of written English in the ‘modern’ age.
George Orwell
Most people who bother with the matter at all would admit that the English language is in a bad
way, but it is generally assumed that we cannot by conscious action do anything about it. Our
civilization is decadent and our language – so the argument runs – must inevitably share in the
general collapse. It follows that any struggle against the abuse of language is a
sentimental archaism, like preferring candles to electric light or hansom cabs to aeroplanes.
Underneath this lies the half-conscious belief that language is a natural growth and not an
instrument which we shape for our own purposes.

Now, it is clear that the decline of a language must ultimately have political and economic
causes: it is not due simply to the bad influence of this or that individual writer. But an effect can
become a cause, reinforcing the original cause and producing the same effect in an intensified
form, and so on indefinitely. A man may take to drink because he feels himself to be a failure,
and then fail all the more completely because he drinks. It is rather the same thing that is
happening to the English language. It becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are
foolish, but the slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts. The
point is that the process is reversible.

Politics and the English Language, George Orwell

Analysis
In this extract you can see:
 Orwell uses first person plural pronouns – “we” and “our” – this makes the reader feel that the
state of the English language is their problem too.
 The vocabulary is complex and polysyllabic. This reinforces his idea that we should not be
lazy with words – we should make more effort to use and understand a wide range of
vocabulary.
 The verbs “collapse” and “struggle” imply how difficult the fight against falling standards is.
 Similes “like preferring candles to electric lights or hansom cabs to aeroplanes” admit the
benefits of progress, that everything changes – sometimes for the better.
 However, the metaphor of the drunken man – drinking due to failure, then failing due to
drinking – suggests that the “slovenliness” of our language will make us more “foolish” so
that we can never put things right.
 The final short sentence, “The point is that the process is reversible” gives the reader hope that
they can improve their English language - if they make the effort to. This is the purpose of the
essay – to argue that we must make that effort.

Travel writing

Travel writing tells the reader about visiting different places.

A tourist guide - or a more personal account of a journey - will:

 describe places
 inform about cultures
 explain how to do things
They might also:

 persuade the reader to visit

 advise the reader what to do
 entertain the reader with a creative style of writing
Guides are usually written in the third person whereas personal accounts tend to be first person.
 Travel writing can take many forms, such as newspaper articles, essays, journals, blogs and
autobiography. It can also be written as a book, telling a longer narrative about a journey or
place. Many types of travel writing contain the features of literary non-fiction.

Example
Bill Bryson is a famous travel writer. This extract is the opening paragraph from his book The
Lost Continent (1989).

I come from Des Moines. Somebody had to.

When you come from Des Moines you either accept the fact without question and settle down
with a local girl named Bobbi and get a job at the Firestone factory and live there forever and
ever, or you spend your adolescence moaning at length about what a dump it is and how you
can't wait to get out, and then you settle down with a local girl named Bobbi and get a job at the
Firestone factory and live there forever and ever.

The Lost Continent, Bill Bryson

Analysis
In this extract:

 Bryson begins with humour, “Somebody had to.” This amuses the reader and creates a chatty
tone. It raises the question ‘Why does he sound negative?’ – intriguing the reader.
 Using the first person forms an immediate connection between Bryson and his reader. He
builds on this by opening with an anecdote to entertain them.
 A rule of three summarises “your” future, “settle down with a local girl”, “get a job at the
Firestone factory” and “live there forever and ever”. This makes life in Des Moines sound
predictable and limited.
 The contrasting options “accept the fact without question” or “spend your adolescence
moaning at length” are both awful!
 Describing Des Moines as a “dump” makes the reader imagine a rubbish dump or an ugly
place.
 Bryson ends the extract with a repetition of your first “option” - to “settle, get a job and live
there forever and ever” – this implies that you have no choice really and cannot escape Des
Moines.
 This extract is likely to entertain the reader but unlikely to persuade them to visit Des Moines!

Purpose
Think ‘TAP’ when looking at a non-fiction text:
 text type
 audience
 purpose
A writer has an aim when writing a text - they want to have an effect on their reader.

A text can have many purposes. Some examples are to:

 entertain – to amuse the reader or make them enjoy reading the text
 persuade – to influence the viewpoint of the reader - these texts may be biased
 advise – to help people decide what to do - these texts may give ideas and options
 analyse – to break down something to help people to understand it better
 argue – to make the case for something - these texts may be one-sided
 describe – to give precise details about a person, place, object or experience
 explain – to make clear ‘how’ and ‘why’ something works or happens in a certain way
 inform – to tell a reader about something they don’t know, or add to their knowledge
 instruct – to tell a reader how to do something, ordered step-by-step

Texts can have more than one purpose, eg a writer could entertain and inform, or they could
inform and persuade the reader.

Some types of non-fiction text have a specific purpose. For example, travel writing describes a
journey or a place, and can be intended to persuade. This purpose can be explicit - stated directly,
eg “You must visit Florida!” or can be implicit - suggested but not said openly, eg “Florida is a
wonderful place to visit!”

When you read a non-fiction text, you can tell its purpose by looking at:

 Its content – Who would be interested?

 Its tone – Is it serious or light-hearted?
 Its structure – What does it focus on throughout and to end?
 Its language – Is the language formal or informal?
Question
What purpose(s) do each of the following texts have?

a news article
a self-help book
a letter asking for a charity donation
 an autobiography
 a book review
 travel writing
Hide answer

a news article - to inform but also to persuade, if the article is showing a particular
opinion towards a topic, eg animal testing
a self-help book - to advise
a letter asking for a charity donation - to persuade
 an autobiography - to entertain and to inform
a book review - to analyse, inform, and advise
 travel writing - to inform, persuade and entertain

Comparing two texts from different

times: summary and synthesis
Comparing two texts from different times (eg 80 years apart) helps to identify how each achieves
its purpose. Link the texts by theme or topic, eg both might be about experiences of poverty,
education, survival, or even a popular day out.

When linking two texts, summarise and synthesise:

 the different viewpoints in each text

 the purposes - the writer’s reasons for writing the texts or what they want to achieve
 methods used to convey viewpoints, eg text type, structure, language differences, tone
 context – this will come from within the texts, eg modern references, such as ‘Google’, or from the past, such as
‘printing press’
 intended audiences - this could be one reader or a specific group of readers

Question:

The two extracts show children’s experiences of food.

What differences are there between school dinners in these extracts?

Use details from both extracts to support your answer.

Extract 1:
Extract 1 is from Such, Such Were the Joys, an autobiographical essay by George Orwell,
published in 1952. Here, Orwell writes about his experience of school dinners at St Cyprian’s.
The food was not only bad, it was also insufficient. Never before or since have I seen butter or
jam scraped on bread so thinly. I do not think I can be imagining the fact that we were underfed,
when I remember the lengths we would go in order to steal food. On a number of occasions I
remember creeping down at two or three o'clock in the morning through what seemed like miles
of pitch-dark stairways and passages — barefooted, stopping to listen after each step, paralysed
with about equal fear of Sambo, ghosts and burglars — to steal stale bread from the pantry. The
assistant masters had their meals with us, but they had somewhat better food, and if one got half
a chance it was usual to steal left-over scraps of bacon rind or fried potato when their plates were
removed.

As usual, I did not see the sound commercial reason for this underfeeding. On the whole I
accepted Sambo's view that a boy's appetite is a sort of morbid growth which should be kept in
check as much as possible. A maxim often repeated to us at St Cyprian's was that it is healthy to
get up from a meal feeling as hungry as when you sat down.

Such, Such Were the Joys, George Orwell

Extract 2:
How schools can join Food Revolution Day 2015 by JamieOliver.com May 2015.

Food Revolution Day is kicking off on Friday 15 May to get children everywhere excited about
good, fresh, real food. It’s a global day of action to celebrate the importance of cooking
from scratch, and to raise awareness of how it impacts our health and happiness.
Greenvale School in Lewisham, London, is a community special school for children and young
people between the ages of 11 and 19 who have severe and profound learning difficulties. On
Food Revolution Day 2014 all of the students in the school took part in Jamie’s live lesson in
some way: even if they were not able to practically get involved in the cooking due to because of
their physical disability, they were still able to smell and feel the ingredients with support from
staff.

Some of the children focussed on shaking up the salad dressing, and others were given tasks of
chopping, grating, picking herbs, and wrapping, based on ability. Each class had set up their
tables in front of the screen and students were excited and well prepared!

How schools can join Food Revolution Day 2015, JamieOliver.com

Remember - always quote from both texts. This shows off your comprehension skills!
Analysis
SUMMARISE - scan read both texts for 2 or 3 main points:

Extract 1 – 1952 Extract 2 - 2015

They sound healthy – ‘good, fresh, real food’, ‘raises awareness of

They sound unhealthy – ‘insufficient’ ‘underfed’
how it impacts our health’

Children - steal extra food ‘it was usual to steal Children - are involved in preparing the food ‘all of the students took
left-over scraps’ part’

Appetites - are encouraged ‘students were excited’ to be working with

Appetites - were ‘kept in check’
the food

SYNTHESISE – compare the differences:

In Extract 1, school dinners sound unhealthy as Orwell complains that they are "insufficient" and
the boys are "underfed". There was not enough food for the children to feel satisfied. In Extract
2, school dinners sound healthy as the food is "good, fresh, real food". This extract states directly
that the Revolution Day "raises awareness of how it impacts our health".

The children resort to stealing extra food in Extract 1, as they are still hungry after school
dinners: "it was usual to steal left-over scraps". Whereas in Extract 2 the children are more
involved as "all of the students took part" - the food is not kept away from them.

In Extract 2, the children are encouraged to enjoy working with the food: "students were excited
and well prepared". This suggests that they will look forward to eating it too. Jamie Oliver’s day
intends to "celebrate the importance of cooking from scratch". However, Orwell’s extract implies
a negative attitude towards eating, since appetites "should be kept in check as much as possible"
and you leave a meal "feeling as hungry as when you sat down".
 Audience

An audience is a person - or group of people - reading a text, listening to a speech, or watching

something, eg an advertisement or film.

When writing a text, authors imagine an ideal reader - someone who will respond in a way that
achieves the purpose of the writing. For example, someone who visits a place of interest after
reading a tourist guide designed to inform and encourage them to visit.

Texts appeal to an intended target audience, eg a piece about ‘selfies’ is intended for teens. Texts
can also have more than one specific audience, eg children’s stories are for children but must
also appeal to the adults who will buy them. Writers tailor their writing to an audience by
adapting:

 Language – simple vocabulary and sentences structures are suitable for younger children
whereas specialist terms are often attached to a specific topic.
 Style – a chatty, informal style appeals to young adults, as well as older readers if the text is
light-hearted whereas a formal style suits serious or academic topics.
 Layout and organisation – layout will focus the audience’s attention on important parts of the
text, gradually guiding them through the ideas, eg a charity leaflet may begin with a focus on
the problems and why the reader should donate - and then end with how to donate.
Analysis
You can tell an intended audience by looking at:

 The content – who is interested? For instance, a detailed and highly technical article about
bike maintenance would most interest an audience of regular bike riders.
 The tone – is it chatty or formal? For example, a blogger writing about a skincare routine vs a
report about the environment.
 The words – does it use specialist terms, simple words or unusual vocabulary? For example,
specialist vocabulary relating to a specific sport shows that the intended audience is people
who take part in that sport. Tennis players will understand the specialist terms used to score
points, such as love, advantage and deuce.
 The use of language, does it use Standard English, slang or dialect?
 The use of personal pronouns “We”, “our”, “I” and “you” includes the reader and invites them
to agree with the writer.
 How the layout supports the purpose of the text and focuses the attention of the audience. For
example, subheadings signal what each section is about.
Example
Here is an example text from the CBBC website:

Questions to ask:

 What is the purpose of this text?

 Who is the intended audience?
 What gives you that impression?
Analysis
The purposes of the text are to inform and instruct. The intended audience is children.

 The layout uses a heading and subheading. These clearly tell children what they can make and
what they need to make it. The instructions are numbered to organise them into step-by-step
 instructions. This guides children through something new. Simple and compound sentences
deliver the information in a short, punchy way. This avoids confusing the younger readers.
Brackets help children’s understanding with extra explanation, eg “(this will help your bottles
stick).”
 The language is imperative: it tells children directly what to do. The words are simple and
easy to understand. Children will know what the specialist term ‘PVA glue’ means as they use
it at school. The word “completely” reinforces the instruction to cover the ball thoroughly with
paper. Without this direction, children might not cover it enough. They will be disappointed if
their project goes wrong!
 The tone is informal and chatty: “Shiny silver works really well for a disco ball!” sounds like a
friend making a suggestion. Personal pronouns are direct and invite children to get involved –
and to take on the challenge.

Language
Martin Luther King's 1963 I Have a Dream speech
The purpose of Martin Luther King’s rhetorical speech was to end racism in America and
persuade the audience that everyone should have equal rights.

How does he use language to deliver a strong message?

King uses similes “until justice rolls down like waters” and “righteousness like a mighty stream”
to make the reader visualise “justice” and “righteousness” as rushing water – implying that they
need to be forceful and unstoppable.

Exam questions may ask you to comment on how writers use language to make an impression on
the reader.

You should select words and phrases for close analysis - to show that you understand how
language features affect the reader.

Below are some of the features that writers select deliberately for effect:

Language features

Nouns
Naming words. They may be:

 concrete – naming objects, eg table, car

 abstract – naming ideas and feelings, eg adventure, pride
 proper – naming people, places, days, months etc, eg Marie, Sweden, Monday (always capital letters)

Adjectives
 words that describe nouns, eg green, huge, sparkly

Verbs
Words that describe nouns:

 action words (do/feel/be), eg run, hide, think

 past tense, eg I played the recorder
 present tense, eg he walks to the shops
 future tense, eg she will go home later

Adverbs
 words that describe verbs, eg quickly, patiently

Pronouns
Someone or something, the subject of the sentence:

 first person, eg I, we, me, my, our, us

 second person, eg you, yours, yourself
 third person, eg he, she, they, them, theirs

Prepositions
 words used to show where something is in place or time, eg at, for, with, after, to, over, from, into

Literary language features

Terminology Definition Examples

'As big as a whale', 'float like a butterfly,

simile A comparison using 'like' or 'as' to create a vivid image.
sting like a bee'

metaphor A comparison made without using 'like' or 'as'. 'Sea of troubles' and 'drowning in debt'

A type of imagery in which non-human objects, animals or 'The jaws of the cave', 'the leaves
personification
ideas are given human characteristics. danced in the breeze'

The environment (usually the weather) reflects the mood 'The fog crept evilly through the streets
pathetic fallacy
of the character or scene. as he stalked his victim.'

The sounds of words to express or underline their

onomatopoeia 'Crunch', 'pop', 'screech'
meaning, sensory imagery.

alliteration The repetition of the same sounds usually at the beginning 'Reuse, renew, recycle'
 Terminology Definition Examples

of words.

assonance The repetition of vowel sounds in a series of words. 'Harsh bark', 'moonlit pool'

Repetition in a group of three to strengthen an idea or

rule of three 'Freedom, equality, and justice'
argument.

Implied meanings suggested by a word rather than its 'Red' is a colour but can imply 'danger',
connotations
literal meanings. 'anger' or 'stop'.

hyperbole Over-the-top exaggeration for effect. 'I have ten tonnes of homework to do.'

repetition Words, phrases or ideas that are repeated for effect. 'This is serious. Incredibly serious.'

rhetorical
A question asked for effect with no answer expected. 'Do you think that I’m made of money?'
questions

emotive language Words chosen to bring an emotional response. 'Defenceless', 'hard-hearted'

Also consider:

 Is the text in the first person or third person? Is it personal or impersonal?

 Which tense has the writer chosen, eg past or present? What effect does this have?
 How sentences are structured, eg short and simple (to pack a punch) or lists (to suggest boredom or pick up the
pace).
Avoid ‘feature spotting’ – you need to show that you understand the impact of writers’ language
choices on the reader and not just list them.

You should always comment on the possible effects of language use on the reader – how it
makes the reader respond eg, think, feel, imagine or visualise something.

Analysing language
Exam questions ask you to comment on how writers use language to make an impression on the
reader. You should use terminology to show that you understand which features the writer is
using, as well as how they affect the reader.

Language analysis framework: SQuID

S – Statement – begin with identifying the language feature or type of language being used, eg
'King uses similes…'

Qu – Quote – next quote from the text the word or phrase you are analysing, eg ‘justice rolls
down like waters’.

I – Infer – next work out what the words or images imply to you, eg ‘like waters’ implies
something is flowing steadily.

D – Develop – finally, develop the analysis with a comment on the reader’s response, eg 'The
reader will imagine justice, like water, being strong and moving forward.

Make your analysis even stronger with a focus on individual words and phrases – analyse closely
what they suggest, eg ‘stony faced’ – ‘stony’ suggests the character is like a statue, hard,
unfeeling and immovable.

Example
This extract is from My Family and Other Animals, a memoir by Gerald Durrell, of the five years
he and his family lived on Corfu.

How does Durrell use language to describe the character of the ‘Rose-beetle Man’?

Durrell's family and friends from the BBC adaptation of My Family and Other Animals
 For some time the Rose-beetle Man would turn up at the villa fairly regularly with some new
addition to my menagerie: a frog, perhaps, or a sparrow with a broken leg. One afternoon Mother
and I, in a fit of extravagant sentimentalism, bought up his entire stock of rose-beetles and, when
he had left, let them all go in the garden. For days the villa was full of rose-beetles, crawling on
the beds, lurking in the bathroom, banging against the lights at night, and falling like emeralds
into our laps.

The last time I saw the Rose-beetle Man was one evening when I was sitting on a hill-top
overlooking the road. He had obviously been to some fiesta and had been plied with much wine,
for he swayed to and fro across the road, piping a melancholy tune on his flute. I shouted a
greeting, and he waved extravagantly without looking back. As he rounded the corner he was
silhouetted for a moment against the pale lavender evening sky. I could see his battered hat with
the fluttering feathers, the bulging pockets of his coat, the bamboo cages full of sleepy pigeons
on his back, and above his head, circling drowsily round and round, I could see the dim specks
that were the rose-beetles. Then he rounded the curve of the road and there was only the pale sky
with a new moon floating in it like a silver feather, and the soft twittering of his flute dying away
in the dusk.

My Family and Other Animals, Gerald Durrell (1956)

Analysis
 The choice of name “Rose-beetle Man” implies that the man is very close to nature – like roses and insects. The
reader gets the impression he is mysterious - his real name is unknown.
 Durrell uses verbs and adverbs “swayed to and fro” and “waved extravagantly” to show the uncontrolled way
the man moves. “Extravagantly” suggests the wave was over the top. The reader imagines he is very drunk from
“much wine”.
 Alliteration “fluttering feathers” also highlights the movements of the man.
 Adjectives “pale lavender evening sky” contrast the lively man to the calm surroundings. The reader can
visualise his “battered hat” and “bulging pockets” implying he is scruffy against the beautiful sky.
 The simile “the pale sky with a new moon floating in it like a silver feather” creates a gentle atmosphere along
with the onomatopoeia “soft twittering” to describe the bird like sound of the man’s flute.
 Durrell uses a metaphor “his flute dying away in the dusk”, the word “dying” makes the reader feel Durrell’s
sadness, as it was “the last time” he ever saw the Rose-beetle Man.

Structure
The structure of a text is how it is organised and how its parts fit together. Writers structure their
texts deliberately to have an effect on the reader.

Exam questions ask you to comment on how writers structure their texts to interest the reader.
You should use terminology and show that you understand how structural features introduce and
prioritise information in a text.
Structural features

Feature Purpose Effect on the reader

Comment on how the writer introduces ideas and

openings The start of a text must interest the reader.
raises questions.

Analyse what is implied, eg a gloomy landscape implies

This is what the writer focuses on as the
focus an unhappy situation - what is causing that
text develops.
unhappiness? What will happen next?

Changes in ideas and perspectives, eg Comment on how this change is effective, eg creates
shifts
outside to inside. contrast.

contrast The differences between two things. Comment on the effect a drastic difference produces.

repetition or When words, phrases or ideas are Repetitive features can highlight key meanings,
patterns repeated for effect. indicate a development or show a lack of change.

Ask what effect is created by altering the pace, eg a

The feeling of speed in the writing – are
slow pace builds tension or suggests boredom, a
pace events and ideas revealed to the reader
quicker pace may suit a piece about things happening
slowly or quickly?
at speed.

temporal Comment on how time is used to speed up or slow

References to time.
references down the pace of the text.

This could be chronological or writers Comment on how the order of events introduces and
order of events might choose to start at the end, in the prioritises key ideas – and how this engages the
middle, or with flashbacks / flash forwards. reader.

The conclusion of a text may be neat or Think about how the reader feels at the end. Have
endings
leave us with questions. their feelings changed since the opening?

withholding Clues and hints are given without revealing Analyse what is implied by hints – how does this build
information everything at once. the reader’s expectations?

dialogue Conversations and speech. How does dialogue move the text forward?

headings, Divides the content of texts into topics and

subheadings and sub topics, can signal the start of new How do they guide readers through a text?
questions points.

Bullets can summarise and simplify a range

bullets Why does the writer summarise certain points?
of ideas.
 Feature Purpose Effect on the reader

Comment on how sentence structures affect the

Varied types of sentences, eg simple,
sentence structures fluency of the text, eg a sudden short sentence could
compound and complex.
reveal shocking information.

paragraph lengths These vary like sentences eg, to highlight Comment on how paragraph lengths affect the
significant points or to provide a detailed development of the text, eg a final paragraph might
account. summarise key points in an argument.

Structure of a non-fiction text

The structure of a non-fiction piece could be:

 chronological – in date or time order

 prioritised – the most important facts first (like a news article)
 separated into blocks by subheadings – eg in a feature article
 question and answer – eg in information leaflets
 problem and solution – eg in agony aunt columns, or self-help guides
 letter structure – a salutation (Dear…) and an appropriate ending (Yours sincerely…)
 starting in the middle of an event, then providing further information to give several possible viewpoints

Using paragraphs to structure a text

Look at the way the key ideas in a piece are ordered. This will help you work out the structure.
There is usually one important idea per paragraph, but some texts have more.

Within each paragraph, ideas can be structured in different ways. A common approach is to start
with a topic sentence – the big idea – and then develop it with details or examples. Paragraphs
often end with a hook to make you consider the ideas included in the paragraph that you have
just read, or a link to the next paragraph.

The number and order of paragraphs, the order of the ideas, and how each paragraph is
constructed are all features you can comment on. Why has the writer chosen to structure their
paragraphs in specific ways?

Additionally, a shortened paragraph that stands out to the reader can sometimes indicate a
change in viewpoint or significant point in the text that the writer may offer a counter argument.

Example
This extract describes the events leading up to the 1666 ‘Great Fire of London’.

How does the writer structure the text to interest the reader?

September 2, 1666
 It was a small mistake, but with great consequences. On September 2, 1666, Thomas Farrinor,
baker to King Charles II of England, failed, in effect, to turn off his oven. He thought the fire
was out, but apparently the smouldering embers ignited some nearby firewood and by one
o'clock in the morning, three hours after Farrinor went to bed, his house in Pudding Lane was in
flames. Farrinor, along with his wife and daughter, and one servant, escaped from the burning
building through an upstairs window, but the baker's maid was not so fortunate, becoming the
Great Fire's first victim. Did these cakes set fire to London?

The fire then leapt across Fish Street Hill and engulfed the Star Inn. The London of 1666 was a
city of half-timbered, pitch-covered medieval buildings and sheds that ignited at the touch of a
spark--and a strong wind on that September morning ensured that sparks flew everywhere. From
the Inn, the fire spread into Thames Street, where riverfront warehouses were bursting with oil,
tallow, and other combustible goods. By now the fire had grown too fierce to combat with the
crude firefighting methods of the day, which consisted of little more than bucket brigades armed
with wooden pails of water. The usual solution during a fire of such size was to demolish every
building in the path of the flames in order to deprive the fire of fuel, but the city's mayor
hesitated, fearing the high cost of rebuilding. Meanwhile, the fire spread out of control, doing far
more damage than anyone could possibly have managed.

Extract taken from the diary of Samuel Pepys

Analysis
The writer:

 opens with a contrast “small mistake” and “great consequences”, raising the question of how something small
grew so big
 the focus then shifts to Thomas Farrinor, a baker, thinking his “fire was out” – this detail foreshadows the start
of the Great Fire, building tension
 a temporal reference “three hours after Farrinor went to bed” implies how control was lost in a short space of
time as by then his house “was in flames” and there is the “first victim” – implying there will be many more
victims
 the question “Did these cakes set fire to London?” suggest that the idea is hard for the reader to believe – and
intrigues them to discover how this was possible
 the focus then shifts to the growing fire “leapt” and “engulfed”, the wooden structure of London and the
“strong wind” – together these elements suggest the fire will take over quickly, creating a quicker pace
 contrast is used to show how useless the “bucket brigades armed with wooden pails” are as “the fire spread out
of control”
 the extract ends leaving the reader thinking about the vast “damage” the fire caused, and that no one “could
possibly have managed” it

Annotating for language and structure

Always spend a few minutes considering the question and then quickly annotating the extract to
highlight useful evidence – ready to use in your answer.
 An example of how you could annotate a text using an extract from An Essay by George Orwell
Annotating language

Don't highlight all the language features you spot – you’ll end up highlighting the whole text.
Pick out examples of striking word choices or literary devices. They might be interesting because
they’re unusual, or because they’re doing a particularly good job of creating an effect linked to
purpose or audience.

Do pick out individual words which you can explore closely – ones with particular connotations,
for example, or ones which seem especially significant. These are usually adjectives, or phrases
that have used particular techniques to conjure up a specific image.

Think about how each word or phrase will support your answer.

Annotating structure

Look at the overall text to begin your annotation. Can you spot patterns in the structure? How
has the writer chosen to organise the text? How do they order ideas and information?

Look out for:

 effective openings
 headings and subheadings
 focus and focus shifts
 contrast and pace
 time and place
 repetition and patterns
 paragraph and sentence lengths
 effective conclusions
Highlight or label structural features of a text – it is useful to look at the opening, middle and
ending. Briefly note the effect of that feature on the reader – what is the writer prioritising or
emphasising through their use of structure?

Responding to a non-fiction text

How to analyse an extract
Tasks can focus on effectiveness, themes and ideas, how writers have used language, form and
structure, or a combination of these. You will usually need to think about:

 Explicit and implicit information.

 How the writer has used language features.
 How the writer has used structure.
 Comparing two different texts – their methods, audiences and purpose.
 Evaluating texts - to what extent does it achieve its purpose?
Firstly, circle key instructions in the question.

Then, read the text and highlight three to four quotations that will support your answer.

Finally, jot down a brief plan of the points you are going to make in your answer.

In Paper 2, you will answer questions on two different non-fiction texts. One text will be from
the 20th century and the other will be from the 21st century. One of these will be literary non-
fiction.

Always keep in mind how much time you have to spend on each question – be strict about this to avoid running
out of time on longer questions.
Annotating

The key to planning an answer is to think about what the task is asking you to do. For example, it
may ask you to look at a particular idea or viewpoint. Read the text carefully, with the question
in mind. Thinking about the question, annotate the extract. Use highlighting or underlining to
pick out key parts of the text that you can use in your answer.

You might read the extract a couple of times, focussing on different things as you do. For
example, focus on the language used, then the way that the text is structured, and then finally
how the writer aims to use both of these things to achieve their purpose and influence the reader.

Using coloured pens to annotate different aspects or features might help you to be selective when
identifying the evidence needed to answer the question.

Planning an answer

When you’ve read the text carefully and annotated it, then make a plan. Make a bullet point list
or a mind map of all the ideas you can think of that are relevant to the question. Link the ideas to
specific quotations from the extract.

Select the best points to use. Aim for at least three or four main points, and arrange them in a
logical order. Your choice of order should help you to develop your ideas and reach a convincing
conclusion.

Write up your points using the SQuID answer framework:

S – Statement:

 Begin with a statement that focuses on the question, eg 'In cities, burglars don’t seem to feel any guilt.
 Or identifies the method being used, eg 'The writer opens with a short statement…'
 Qu – Quote:

 Next quote from the text the word or phrase you are analysing, eg “cold-hearted”.
I – Infer:

 Then work out what the use of structure or language implies to you, eg 'The first focus is negative - on burglars
who are “cold-hearted” - which implies that this was a cruel robbery. The adjective “cold” implies icy, with no
feelings in their hearts, as hearts suggest emotion.
D – Develop:

 Finally, develop with a comment on the reader’s response, eg 'The reader will feel pity for the victim and angry
towards the burglars.'
 If comparing texts, you might use this part of your answer to link to the other text, using comparative discourse
markers, eg 'by contrast', 'similarly', etc.

Understanding the question

The key to a successful answer is focussing on the question.

Short answer questions will ask for specific information – these will not require an introduction
or a conclusion.

Longer answers will ask you to be evaluative – these will require an introduction summing up
your opinion. You will then support your opinion with quotations and an analysis of the writers’
methods.

The exam will ask you to compare texts from two different times; one will be pre-1900 and the
other will be from either the 20th or the 21st century. You should practise the skills of scan
reading and summarising key points from the texts to prepare for this.

Use key words from the question to demonstrate your understanding.

Example questions

Example question one

Analyse how the writer uses language and structure to interest and engage readers.

Support your views with detailed reference to the text.

This is a very general question, which asks you to look at the technical aspects of the text –
language and structure – to see how the writer has used them to appeal to their audience. Here
you need to identify features and then explain how these features will interest
and engage readers. You need to think about who the audience is, and what the purpose of the
text is. As always, you will need to use quotations and examples from the text to support every
point you make.
Example question two
Read the letter from Henry to his father.

How does Henry use language to try to influence his father?

This question also looks at language use in relation to its effect on the reader, except that here the
relationship between the writer and the reader is a specific one. Knowing that relationship means
that you can infer more things from what the text says - can you tell what kind of a father he is?
The word “influence” suggests that the purpose of the text is also key - Henry is trying to achieve
something.

Example question three

How does the writer use language and structure to make his description of the lesson
entertaining?

This question is asking you to focus on a specific part of the text - a description. You need to
consider the technical aspects of what writers do – language and structure – to see how the writer
achieves his purpose. The question highlights that there are two purposes – to describe and to
entertain.

Example question four

“In these texts school is presented as a challenging place for the pupils.”

How far do you agree with this statement?

This question is of a different type – it makes a statement about the extracts, which has an
interpretation in it. This statement is the focus of the question. You might agree or disagree with
it, but must present examples from the text to support either opinion. When planning your
answer, you will keep to the idea of “challenging place for pupils”. The word presented is
important too - it signals that you need to think about all the methods the writers are using to
show their ideas. You will need to look at language, structure, tone, and all the other things a
writer can use.

Structuring a longer answer

It can be useful to think of your longer exam responses as a layered sandwich or burger to make
sure you include all the main parts.

Longer answers are needed when you are asked to compare or evaluate (one or more) non-fiction
texts.

A longer answer should include:

 1. A brief introduction - which summarises your opinion, signalling the direction that your answer to the
question will take.
2. The main body - three or four detailed paragraphs.
3. A short conclusion - which focuses on the question and how the reader is left feeling at the end of the
extract – has the writer’s purpose been achieved?

Writing an introduction

When you’ve planned your points, and ordered them, it’s time to start writing. Your opening
sentence should summarise your main argument. The rest of the answer then shows how you've
come to that conclusion.

Example
In this article from the 'Comment is free' section of The Guardiannewspaper, how successful is
Charlie Brooker at persuading us to his point of view on the television show MasterChef?

Have you seen MasterChef? Of course you have, even if you've been trying to avoid it, because
it's always there, like the sky or the ground or that skin you're in. MasterChef dominates the
schedules like a slow-moving weather system dictating the climate. Your TV's stuck on
MasterChef mode. It's not even a TV these days, more a MasterChef display unit. Cooking
doesn't get more omnipresent than this.

Masterchef is the best television show in broadcasting history, if you ignore all the other ones,
Charlie Brooker (2014)

Suggested introduction
Charlie Brooker is successful at persuading the reader that ‘MasterChef’ has taken over
television – and is not to everyone’s taste. He does this through establishing a heavily sarcastic
and exaggerated tone.

This introduction:

 specifically answers the question rather than just rephrasing it

 summarises what the text is effective in doing (by creating a sarcastic tone)
 prepares to launch into a detailed analysis of structure and language – the following paragraphs will provide
evidence to support this initial view

Structuring a longer answer – writing the

main body
Use each paragraph to make one main point. A paragraph should contain:

 a link to the previous idea

 a statement of the main point in this paragraph
 some evidence from the text to support what you think - this will probably include something
on structure and/or language
 a discussion of the quotations, and links to any other possible evidence
 a link back to the question, or to the next point
Start each paragraph with a link to the question, and the point which came immediately before.
This way you are able to make a chain of your different paragraphs. Connectives help to show
the relationship between them:

 Firstly...
 Secondly...
 On the one hand....
 On the other hand...
 Similarly...
 In contrast...
 However...
 Alternatively…
 Finally…
Example
To use the example of Charlie Brooker’s MasterChef article, a student could begin to support
their initial opinion by commenting on how the writer’s methods are effective.

The question is:

How successful is Charlie Brooker at persuading us to his point of view on the television
show 'MasterChef?'

Have you seen MasterChef? Of course you have, even if you've been trying to avoid it, because
it's always there, like the sky or the ground or that skin you're in. MasterChef dominates the
schedules like a slow-moving weather system dictating the climate. Your TV's stuck on
MasterChef mode. It's not even a TV these days, more a MasterChef display unit. Cooking
doesn't get more omnipresent than this.

Masterchef is the best television show in broadcasting history, if you ignore all the other ones,
Charlie Brooker (2014)

In their introduction, the student summarised their overall opinion:

Charlie Brooker is successful at persuading the reader that ‘MasterChef’ has taken over
television – and is not to everyone’s taste. He does this through establishing a heavily sarcastic
and exaggerated tone.
 Analysis
The main body could include points such as:

 Brooker addresses the reader directly with a rhetorical question, “Have you seen
MasterChef?” The immediate statement, “Of course you have, even if you’ve been trying to
avoid it” implies that you might want to “avoid it” but can’t.
 He uses the rule of three, “like the sky or the ground or that skin you’re in” to emphasise how
impossible it is to escape watching MasterChef.
 The simile “like a slow-moving weather system” makes the reader imagine an uncomfortable
atmosphere that traps you, like humidity or dark clouds.
 His metaphor suggesting that a TV is “more a MasterChef display unit” exaggerates his point
and suggests that nothing else is ever shown.
 The verb “dominates” and adjective “omnipresent” (present everywhere) imply
that MasterChef is forceful and inescapable.
All of these points, support the view that Brooker is successful in persuading us
that MasterChef is not “the best television show in broadcasting history”.

Using quotations and close analysis

Keep your quotations short and to the point. Using just a few words is more powerful than
copying out chunks of text: it shows you are being selective in what you say. You should also be
careful to copy accurately. Put the quotation inside your own sentence, rather than sticking it in
the middle of a page and then commenting on it. This is called embedding a quotation.

So rather than:

“He flew like a butterfly.” This is an example of a simile, which shows that he was light and
graceful.

Or:

The author uses similes, eg “he flew like a butterfly”.

You would write:

The author uses the simile of the boy flying “like a butterfly” to convey the impression that he is
light and graceful.

The words from the text are embedded as part of your sentence – the quotation fits into the
sentence to form part of it.
 When comparing two texts, you should select a quotation from each one to illustrate the
similarities or differences that you have identified.

Making the most of quotations

You should make a close analysis of the language or structural feature evidenced by the
quotation and use that to support your point.

There are several ways you can do this:

 Select a word from the quotation and explore its connotations. The connotations of a word are the things or
ideas it reminds you of, rather than its literal meaning. For example, the word ‘red’ is literally an adjective used
to describe the colour of something. But, depending on the context, it could signify embarrassment, eg 'His face
turned red'; or a warning, eg 'It was a red light to her.'
 Link sets of words to provide an overview of their effect. For example, the writer could use a specific type
of vocabulary, eg words associated with danger such as ‘treacherous’, ‘deadly’ and ‘threatening’ work together
to create an ominous atmosphere.
 Use the correct terms to talk about language and structural features, eg metaphor, simile or contrast. However,
avoid simply listing features – you must analyse the intended purpose and possible effect on the reader.

Structuring a longer answer – writing the

conclusion
To conclude a longer answer, write about the ways in which the extract(s) leave their readers
thinking or feeling. Have the writers achieved their purpose? This should also reinforce your
introductory statement or answer to the question.

Example
If the question is:

How successful is Charlie Brooker at persuading us to his point of view on the television
show 'MasterChef?'

The conclusion could be:

Brooker uses a style of writing that encourages the reader to agree with his viewpoint towards
the television show ‘Masterchef.’ He successfully achieves this through his use of persuasive
language and an anecdotal, informal tone to convey his views. The writer appears to have
written the extract not only to share his opinion of the television programme, but to cause the
reader, even if they are a fan of the show, to question the overbearing presence of shows such as
‘Masterchef’. “Dictating the climate” causes the reader to consider whether the television
programme is being forced upon the viewer rather than being provided in response to viewer
demand. Brooker is clearly writing to evoke a strong reaction in his reader by highlighting the
 possibility that they themselves could be being manipulated. He concludes with a statement,
leaving the readers in no doubt that ‘MasterChef’ is not ‘the best television show in
broadcasting history’.

How to compare texts

Comparing by purpose and form
One way to link texts is through the purpose they are aiming to achieve and the form they are
using.

Form is the type of text, for example:

 an article
 a blog
 a letter
 a diary
 a newspaper
It’s also useful to think about whether the form is for a public or private audience. For example, a
letter is usually for a private audience while a news article is usually for a public audience. This
will affect the purpose of the text and the language choices made by the writer.

Purpose is what the writer is trying to achieve, for example:

 to entertain
 to inform
 to advise
 to persuade
 to argue
It’s very important to remember that often a writer will have more than one purpose. For
example, a fashion blog may want to entertain, as well as inform and advise.

When comparing texts, consider what they have in common AND what is different about them.

If they have the same main purpose:

 Do they use similar methods? For example, a letter and a news article could use persuasive methods to present
completely different viewpoints of the same topic.
 Are they aimed at the same kind of audience or different ones? Within two advertisements, the writers will aim
to sell their product but might have a different target audience in mind.
If they have a different purpose but the same subject:
 How do they treat the subject differently? For example, if you are comparing two texts about a natural disaster,
how does the choice of methods show how the writer has aimed their writing at a particular audience? For
example, one text could be aimed at university students studying the natural disaster and the other could be
aimed at the general public.
 How have the writers shown a different opinion about the same subject?

Example

Look at these headlines, from The Mirror and The Telegraph, from articles reporting the same
story. They have the same main purpose – to inform people about the landing of a space probe
on a comet.

Rock starThe Mirror

European Space Agency's Rosetta spacecraft lands probe on cometThe Telegraph
Analysis
 The Mirror have used a pun, which grabs the attention, playing on the idea that a comet is a rock, and this is a
terrific achievement – so it’s like a ‘star’. But a ‘rock star’ plays on ideas of celebrity. It’s a much shorter
headline, which might be more able to grab the attention of the reader, but does not necessarily inform them of
the topic of the article.
 The Telegraph headline provides a detailed level of information to the reader to indicate the topic of the
headline. The headline provides the reader with the name of the spacecraft which adds to the
educational tone of the headline. The newspaper uses a longer sentence rather than making use of a particular
technique, instead relying on the reader's interest in the topic to attract them to read.
 The difference in the approaches could be because of their different audiences – The Telegraph might be
assuming that their audience is already interested in science, whereas The Mirrormight feel they have to attract
a reader and entertain, as well as inform.

Comparing a writer’s methods

Writers use different methods to achieve their purpose. The form of a non-fiction text will also
affect the writer’s choice of method. A comparison of two texts should focus on HOW the
writer’s methods are similar and/or different. For example, you could focus on a writer’s use of:

 tone, eg humorous, serious, satirical

 language, eg word choice, literary techniques, rhetorical devices
 structure, eg order of ideas, repetition, sentence structure
The writer’s choice of method will have an effect on the reader’s response: it’s important to think
about the impact on the reader when comparing texts. This is also where you can share your
opinion about a text. You are the reader, so think about how the text is making you feel and
respond.

Example

Read these two extracts that both focus on describing a dramatic event.

Extract 1
Experience: I fell out of the Sky

I pulled the brake lines to increase the angle of the wing for extra life. But I forgot that I had
tightened them before take-off and made them far more sensitive. I pulled too hard. That,
combined with the eddies swirling from the trees and building ahead, caused a break in the
airflow under the canopy. Instantly, it began to deflate.

I had just enough time to look up and see the thin material of my wing falling towards me like an
enormous bunch of useless laundry. I was dropping like a stone.

Tumbling through the air with no way to stop is a sensation of utter helplessness: a truly stomach
churning moment where you know you’re not going forwards or upwards; you’re just falling.
There is no time to think. One second became two, two became three. I closed my eyes. Wallop.

Magazine article, The Guardian Weekend, 2014

Skydiver survives 14,000 foot fall after his parachute and backup BOTH fail

A thrillseeker survived a 14,000 foot fall when both his parachute and the emergency backup
failed to deploy during a skydive in Melbourne, Australia. Brad Guy was doing a tandem
skydive, strapped to an instructor, when he plummeted towards the ground as his family watched
helpless in a nearby field. After making the jump, which was a gift for his 21st birthday, Brad
felt the main parachute deploy as they passed 4000 feet, but shortly after he heard his instructor
begin to swear.

The parachute had torn as it opened, causing the pair to spin wildly as they fell.

Recognising something was wrong, Brad asked his instructor: "Are we going to die?" The only
response his instructor, a veteran of 2000 tandem jumps, could give was "I don't know."

The backup parachute deployed at about 500 feet, but tangled with the remains of the main
parachute as they continued to spiral downward.

Guy told local newspaper the Herald Sun: "Survival wasn't in my head at all. I was thinking,
'This ground's going to hit me and when it does, I'll be gone. I've brought my family here to
watch me die.'"

Brad's mum Julie, dad Brian, boyfriend Artie and his three sisters and their families all watched
in horror as the nightmare unfolded.

News report, The Mirror, Mikey Smith

Analysis
Here are some similarities and differences between the two texts. In an exam you wouldn’t have
to cover all of these points.

Similarities
 Purpose - both are informing and entertaining the reader.
 They are both about a similar topic, an airborne accident.
 Both use a specialist semantic field - The Guardian article refers to “brake lines…take-off…canopy…” The
Mirror report uses “deploy” and “tandem skydive”.
 Both use dramatic, emotive language to excite the reader. The Mirror report uses dramatic choices like
“thrillseeker… plummeted… horror… nightmare” whilst The Guardian article uses phrases like “utter
helplessness” and “stomach churning.”
 Both structure the last paragraph in the extract with a dramatic phrase. In the news report “… as the nightmare
unfolded” and in the article ‘Wallop’.
 Both texts are written in the past tense and the readers know from both headlines that the men survived.

Differences
 Different form - extract 1 is a magazine article and extract 2 is an online news report.
 The Mirror report is describing details of the accident after the event, so the reader is presented with the
emotions of the onlookers: “…his family watched helpless…all watched in horror.” This emphasis on the man’s
family watching makes the incident more dramatic for the reader.
 The paramotoring article is written from the perspective of the man involved in the accident, so the reader is
presented with his emotions. The focus is on his experience of this dramatic event.
 The multi-clause sentences in The Mirror report build a sense of anticipation, as the details of the dramatic
event unfold.
 In the paramotoring article, lots of single clause, short sentencesbuild the tension. The informality of the word
“Wallop” in the paramotoring article is shocking and also perhaps creates an amusing tone for the reader.
 The humour is also suggested by the simile, “like an enormous bunch of useless laundry…” The contrast of this
humour with the serious subject matter makes the text very effective.
 The tone in The Mirror report is more factual: “…14,000 foot fall…2000 tandem jumps…” The use of lots of
statistics gives the report a more informative feel.
 The paramotoring article is more descriptive and uses simple, effective images: “I was dropping like a stone.”
This simile gives a vivid, dramatic sense of the man’s experience.
 The Mirror report uses first person interviews, "Survival wasn't in my head at all…”, to make the story more
dramatic.

Comparing literary non-fiction with non-

fiction
Non-fiction and literary non-fiction often use many of the same techniques, and share the same topics, so it makes sense that they can be
compared.

You might compare the methods the writers use to create effective texts, but you might also compare the approach of the writer to their
subject. For example, you could be asked to focus on the writer’s:

 viewpoint

 perspective

 attitude
 ideas

It might also be useful to think about the context of the non-fiction text - has it been written in the 19th century or the 21st century? How does
this affect the attitudes and viewpoint of the writer?

Example
The two extracts below focus on the subject of swimming outdoors. One is a piece of non-fiction from the 19th century and the other is a
piece of literary non-fiction from the 21st century. Think carefully about how the writers’ present different attitudes towards their subject.

Extract 1
The best moment for a bath is high tide: at low tide, or when the tide is coming in or going out, there are certain drawbacks which it would
take too long to explain here. One should never enter the sea unless three hours have elapsed since the last meal, so that the digestive
organs may be in complete repose.

It is unwise to bathe if one happens to be very much excited, if one is suffering from any acute or chronic malady, if one has had a sleepless
night, or if one has been undergoing any violent exercise. One should undress slowly, and, once in one's bathing costume, and wrapped in a
cloak, it is a good thing to walk a little on the beach, so that the body may be warmed by exercise, and therefore better able to resist the
shock on entering the cold water.

Sea-Bathing, The Lady's Dressing Room, Baroness Staffe, 1983

Extract 2
A dark, dark day. After being up all night with diarrhoea and sickness, I felt rough as a dog before I even took to the water. Perhaps it was
inevitable that I’d pick up a bug en route – and here it was. “Thames tummy” set in and set me back in a big way.

I just couldn’t keep anything down, and dehydration was a serious risk. Burning about 8,000 calories a day meant it was almost impossible to
swim with no fuel in my tank, and we had to keep stopping for the medics to check me over. I feared they’d pull the plug on the whole thing.
Thankfully, despite coming close, they let me carry on.

My Epic Thames Swim, David Walliams, The Telegraph, 2011

Analysis
Here are some similarities and differences between the two texts. In an exam you wouldn’t have to cover all of these points.

Similarities
 Both deal with a similar subject - swimming outdoors. Extract 1 focuses on bathing in the sea and extract 2 is focused on a charity swim
in the Thames river.

 Both texts show the challenges of swimming in the outdoors. The 19th century text implies that bathing in the sea is a potentially
hazardous activity - “…better able to resist the shock…"

 We can also infer from the 21st century text that the writer finds the swim a challenge, but is determined to overcome the difficulties “…
they let me carry on.”

 Both writers focus on the physical safety of the swimmers, the 21st century text uses medical terms - “…dehydration was a serious risk.”
The 19th century text also uses medical terms - “..acute or chronic…”

 Both texts have an informative, factual element - “Burning 8,000 calories a day…the best moment for a bathe is high tide…”

Differences
 Extract 1 is a non-fiction text from 1883, extract 2 is literary non-fiction from 2014.

 The main purpose of the older text is to advise the reader on the appropriate and safe way to bathe in the sea.

 The main purpose of the 21st century text is to use a diary form to entertain the reader by presenting the swim in a dramatic way.

 The two writers show different attitudes towards their subject matter. The advice text has an informative heading: “Sea-bathing”
whereas the David Walliams diary has a more emotive title: ‘My Epic Thames swim.”
 The tone of the 21st century text is conversational and informal: “…in a big way…it’s worth saying…talk about relentless…” These
phrases establish a friendly, frank tone.

 In contrast the ‘Sea-Bathing’ article, at certain points, appears more patronising - “…which it would take too long to explain here.”

 The more personal tone of the diary is also established by the frequent use of the personal pronoun ‘I’ : “I feared…I knew…”

 The 19th century text uses the more impersonal pronoun ‘one’ - “if one..One should..” This gives the advice a more formal feel, especially
to the modern reader.

 Walliams choice of simple figurative language, for example similes like “…rough as a dog…” give the diary a down to earth feel. The use
of colloquial metaphors like “…no fuel I my tank…pull the plug…” also give the account an informal tone that engages the reader.

 The 19th century text seeks to engage the reader with an assertive, yet polite tone. The repeated use of the verb ‘should’ gives a forceful
tone to the advice.

 The advice text uses multi-clause sentences to present detailed guidance on how to prepare for sea bathing.

 In the diary, some of the longer sentences contrast with short sentences to give a sense of anticipation – “Burning about 8,000 calories a
day…I feared they’d pull the plug on the whole thing.”

 The advice text uses archaic diction like ‘repose’ and ‘malady’. The language is more detached: ‘..the body…the digestive organs…”
which has the effect of making the advice more impersonal.

 The writers have very different attitudes. The writer of the advice texts suggests that there is a ‘proper’ way to prepare to bathe in the sea.
The use of the adverb ‘undress slowly..’ suggests a sense of caution.

 In contrast, the 21st century text presents swimming outdoors in a more dramatic way – “A dark, dark day...up all night…” The language
is more emotive and personal.

 In contrast the writer of the advice text shares the viewpoint that sea bathing should be avoided if someone is “…very much excited.”

Planning your ideas

Using spider diagrams

Spider diagrams are useful for a quick recording of thoughts and ideas. When you are writing
about one text, you may decide to use a spider diagram to jot down your ideas and then order
them.

When writing about two texts you need to make links between the points you have identified
about each of them. To do this, you could:

 make separate spider diagrams for each text, and then look to link points between them
 make one spider diagram showing each point you make about one text (for example ‘the author directly
addresses the audience’), and checking to see if it’s true of the other text too

Using tables

When you are practising how to compare texts, you might try using a table or Venn diagram to
structure your ideas - in exam conditions this format would not be as practical.

Here’s an example using the two extracts from the previous page:

Point Example from extract 1 Example from extract 2

Both show the challenges of Bathing in the sea is a potentially hazardous The swimmer is determined to overcome
swimming in the outdoors activity - "…better able to resist the shock…" the difficulties “…they let me carry on.”
 Point Example from extract 1 Example from extract 2

Different attitudes towards Has a more emotive title: "My Epic

Has an informative heading: "Sea-bathing"
their subject matter Thames swim"

When you have connections between the points, you need to pick the most important ones, and quickly decide
on a rough order.

How to structure a comparison response

Be sure to dicuss both texts through all of your answer.
A longer comparison response could follow this basic structure:

 A very brief introduction linking the two texts (for example focusing on their purpose or form).
 Main points contrasting and/or comparing the two texts, supported by details. These could include points
on: tone, language choices/literary devices, structure and reader’s response.
 A very brief conclusion - this must use a key word from the question, and mention both texts.
When you compare texts, it’s important to talk about both texts all the way through. Don’t write
all about one text, then all about the other.

In each paragraph, make sure you mention both, even if a point is mostly about one of them.

Sentence starters

Some key phrases can help you to compare texts.

Similarities Differences

Similarly… In contrast…

Equally… However…

In the same way On the other hand…

Just as... so does.... Alternatively…

Both... and... In a different way…

When comparing texts, you are making a point about two different texts, backing up ideas with
evidence and explaining the idea. Then using a linking statement, you can connect the two ideas
together.

Example
 Take a look at the structure of the following example, where the writer compares how their
mother and father react to poor behaviour:

Both my Mum and Dad lose their temper sometimes when we misbehave, but in completely
different ways.

My Mum usually reacts to everything by losing her temper really quickly and screaming in
response to make sure everyone knows just how furious she is. The thing that causes her to react
strictly is usually leaving lights on. Sometimes she shouts, "If I have to tell you again to turn
those lights off, I will take the bulb out of your bedroom!". This shows that sometimes she can
exaggerate in her reactions.

On the other hand, Dad will hardly ever lose his temper, or raise his voice. Instead, he will just
stare at you silently, so you know instantly that you are in trouble. "Well" is the single word that
he says once he has stared at you for a minute, and this shows that whilst he doesn’t scream and
shout like Mum, he gives you a warning of the lecture that he is about to give.

Analysis
Notice how the writer makes a point about how each parent loses their temper, backs it up with
evidence and then explains their idea. The linking sentence starting with ‘on the other hand’
shows how the two ideas are similar or different.

Writing
Audience, purpose and form
When you establish your audience, purpose and form, you can make sensible choices about
language, tone and structure.

Audience refers to the reader(s), eg could be an individual, in the case of a text message, or a
broader group of people in the case of a magazine article or blog.

Purpose refers to the reason for the writing, eg to persuade the reader, to entertain them, to share
information, to warn, to advise, to explain.

Form refers to how and where the writing will appear, eg an email, a blog, a recipe, a leaflet, an
article.

Language simply means the sorts of words you use, eg should your language be:

 Everyday or formal?
 Poetic or straightforward?
 Descriptive or clear?
Tone refers to the mood or feel of your writing, eg should your tone be:

 Friendly and chatty, or distant and polite?

 Sarcastic, pleading, or dismissive?
 Upbeat and positive, or calm and controlled?
Structure refers to the way you present your writing, eg should you use:

 Full sentences and paragraphs?

 Subheadings and bullet points?
 A sequence of linked paragraphs that lead to a final conclusion?

1.

Audience
Who is going to read your writing?

All writing has an intended audience – from emails, to text messages, ingredients on a cereal
package to political speeches - even graffiti on a wall. The intended audience are the readers you
expect to engage with the text.

In the case of direct messages – such as emails, texts or hand-written letters – the audience is
usually the one or two people you address the message to. In this case the language and style of
your writing will change according to a number of factors, including how well you know the
recipient.

For example, you might use chatty language with emoticons and abbreviations in an email to a
close friend. However in a job application email, you’d be expected to use formal language with
full words and sentences.

Other texts, such as newspaper articles, blogs or leaflets are intended for a broader audience. In
this context, you are unlikely to know your readers personally and so you need to make
assumptions about them. Some writers have an ‘ideal’ reader in mind. You might consider the
following things about your reader:

 age
 gender
 culture
 specialist knowledge
 hobbies
 political leanings
Knowing your audience allows you to choose language and a style that will appeal to them.

For example, an article for a magazine aimed at astronomers might include technical vocabulary
to do with telescopes – language less likely to appear in a fashion blog for teenagers.

Similarly a film review in a Sunday newspaper might be sarcastic in tone and use literary
language – not so useful when writing instructions for baking a cake!

Purpose
What will your writing ‘do’?
The purpose of a text is the reason for writing. There are many reasons for writing. You might
be writing to:

 share information
 give instructions on how to do something
 persuade someone that you are right
 persuade a group of people to buy a product
 review a film or website
 explain why you’re the best person for a job
Think about your purpose before you start:

 What do you want your writing to achieve?

 How do you expect your reader to feel as a result of reading?
For example, if your purpose is to instruct a beginner how to fold an origami swan, your
language would need to be clear and concise. Simple language and imperatives would help
convey your message.

If your purpose is to persuade a group of voters to support a political campaign, your writing
would need to be exciting and dynamic. Rhetorical language combined with facts and figures
might help to sway your readers.

Form
Form refers to how and where a piece of writing will appear. Like audience and purpose, the
form influences decisions writers make about language, tone and structure. Each form of writing
has its own conventions.

Here are some examples of forms and their basic conventions:

 Email:

 often more informal than a letter

 might include hyperlinks
 includes a subject line that summarises the content
Novel:

 follows a narrative arc

 includes imaginary characters
 is divided into chapters
Newspaper article:

 has a bold headline

 divided into short paragraphs
 reports a factual event
Recipe:

 includes a list of ingredients

 uses imperative language
 gives clear instructions

What is fiction?
Fiction is writing that draws on your imagination. It might have some emotional truth, or might
be inspired by reality, but the writing takes the reader somewhere else.

Fiction tends to use language that is more descriptive and often poetic.

Examples of fiction include:

 poetry
 plays
 novels
 short stories
You will be working on shorter pieces of imaginative writing, inspired by pictures. You might be
asked to write about a time, real or imagined, when you, or someone you know, had to do
something – for example:

 a time when you had to rise to a challenge

 a time when you had to overcome a fear
 a time when you did something you weren’t proud of
 a time when you were successful

An engaging opening

In a story or novel, the first paragraph has a lot of work to do. It needs to grab the readers’
attention and hook them into the story.

The opening sets the tone and creates intrigue. For example, The Hunger Games by Suzanne
Collins opens with:

When I wake up, the other side of the bed is cold. My fingers stretch out, seeking Prim's warmth but finding only
the rough canvas cover of the mattress. She must have had bad dreams and climbed in with our mother. Of course,
she did. This is the day of the reaping.
This is an effective opening that offers threads for the reader to follow. Collins creates intrigue
by giving enough detail to create a sense of place, but not so much that we learn everything at
once.

We want to find out more about Prim – who is she? Why does she have bad dreams? We also
want to know what the narrator means by ‘the day of the reaping’.

The details in this opening passage create a sense of place. We learn from the ‘rough canvas
cover’ and the fact that the narrator shares a bed with her sister, that this is a poor family. The
mother is mentioned, but not the father, so another question is posed – where is their father?

Story arc

Most fictional (and non-fictional) stories follow a recognisable pattern. One pattern that is
familiar to readers is the five-stage story arc. This structure is also used in films and television
shows.

A five-stage story arc takes the reader through the following stages:

 exposition - an opening that hooks the reader and sets the scene
 rising action - builds tension
 climax, or turning point - the most dramatic part of the story
 falling action - realises the effects of the climax
 resolution - the story is concluded
Think back to the last book you read - where were the five points to the story?

For example, Cinderella

1. Exposition - Cinderella’s mother has died and the stepmother moves in with her two daughters.
2. Rising action – the ‘ugly sisters’ make Cinderella do the housework and don’t invite her to the ball.
 3. Climax – with a little help from her fairy godmother, Cinderella makes it to the palace ball and dances with
the prince.
4. Falling action - the prince finds Cinderella’s glass slipper and travels the country to find her.
5. Resolution – despite the efforts of the ugly sisters, the prince finds Cinderella. They get married and live
happily ever after.
Next time you read a book or watch a film/television programme, notice how it fits into this story
structure. What hooks you in at the start? What obstacles do the characters face? What is the
most dramatic part or turning point in the story? How is the story resolved?

A convincing close

Aim to finish your story in a convincing way, tying up all the loose ends. Aim to resolve the
story and leave your reader feeling satisfied with the way the story ends.

Note that cliffhangers can work well as chapter endings in novels, but they can be less satisfying
at the end of a short story!

Paragraphs
A paragraph is a group of sentences that all link to one topic or theme. For example in the
opening to The Hunger Games, the entire paragraph focuses on the narrator waking up and
realising that her sister is missing. The details of the bed, the name of her sister and the questions
about bad dreams are all connected.

In fictional pieces of writing, paragraphs help the reader to move through the story.

When should I start a new paragraph?

Paragraphs are like signposts for your reader. A new paragraph usually indicates a change of
time, place, topic or person.

Remember when to start a new paragraph with the acronymTiPToP:

Ti – Time

 Start a new paragraph when you move to a new time in your narrative. Your paragraph might begin with Later,
In the evening, That afternoon or another time indicator.
P – Place

 Start a new paragraph when you move to a different place in your story.
To – Topic

 Start a new paragraph when you change topic, start a new piece of action, or move to a new idea in your story
or descriptive writing.
P – Person
 Start a new paragraph when you focus on a different character, or when you use dialogue.

How can I use paragraphs for dramatic effect?

Paragraphs can also be used to highlight tense or significant moments within your writing. For
example, a short one-sentence paragraph is likely to add tension or highlight a turning point in a
narrative.

Language
Use a range of vocabulary

A wide range of vocabulary demonstrates a strong command of language and makes your writing
more lively, engaging and interesting to read. Be creative with your vocabulary and
avoid clichés.

Keep a list of new words that you encounter and use them in your writing. Endeavour to make
sophisticated vocabulary choices where you can.

A thesaurus or synonym dictionary can be useful for expanding your vocabulary. However,
always check the meanings of unfamiliar words and find out how best to use them in a sentence.

Complicated doesn’t always mean better. Simple words are sometimes more effective.
Example: ‘The petite feline devoured its daily nourishment.’

or ‘The small cat ate its food.’

Which do you think conveys its meaning most effectively?

Use figurative language

Figurative language offers depth and colour to your fiction writing. Literal language states things
as they are, whereas figurative language implies more layers of interpretation. You can use a
range of literary devices to add depth to your fiction writing. Here are a few suggestions:

Literary device Definition Example

Comparing one thing to another using The cat was as fat as a barrel. / She felt like she was trapped in
Simile
‘like’ or ‘as’. a box.

His coat was a museum, stuffed with bus ticket memories and
Metaphor Using one thing to represent another.
forgotten button dreams.

Alliteration Repetition of the initial consonant Kate kicked the cupboard door and cried.
Literary device Definition Example

sound in a series of words.

Giving human attributes to non-

Personification The door reached open, inviting him in.
human things.

Words that sound like the noise they

Onomatopoeia The bell clanged and clattered through the house.
signify.

Aim to match your language to the mood of your piece. For example, if you are writing about a
topic that is sad or sinister, 'the clouds gathered conspiringly overhead, the rumbles of thunder
like whispers between them’ would be more convincing than ‘the clouds above me floated by,
each as fluffy as a marshmallow.’

Include the senses

Using senses in your writing is a good way to engage your reader.

As well as the visual aspects of a scene, you can include sounds, smells, feelings and (where
appropriate) tastes to really bring your writing to life.

Compare these two descriptions:

I walked through the forest. The trees were tall. The branches were green.

I walked through the forest, crunching the leaves underfoot. The tall trees oozed a smell of
summer – fresh and sweet. The branches, covered in moss, were soft and green.

Notice how the second version becomes more vivid with the inclusion of all the senses.

Use your imagination to put yourself in the place or next to the person you want to describe.
Appeal to all the senses as you write.

Show, don’t tell

In real life we learn about people from their clothes and belongings as well as from the things
they tell us. We understand someone’s mood from their facial expressions, movements and tone
of voice – we don’t need someone to tell us they are in a bad mood…we can usually figure it out
from the way they are shouting!

It is the same when you read. Instead of telling your readers everything about a character or
place, try to show them instead.

For example:
Telling - The woman walked into the room looking intimidating and angry.

Showing - The woman stormed into the room, her black coat flying behind her. Her scowl was
fierce as she scanned the room. Her piercing eyes settled on Sarah.

Telling - It was midnight and she walked out to the garden.

Showing - The sky was cloudless and the stars filled every inch of it. The moon glowed on the
roses, turning them silvery white as she tiptoed out into the dark.

Sentence variety
Use different sentence types and lengths

Using a variety of sentences can help you to create interest and tension in your writing.
Experiment with different sentence lengths and types to build atmosphere, mood and suspense.

Varying sentence length

Use your sentence lengths to reflect the pace of the action in the narrative. On a basic level, short
sentences can show a faster pace whereas longer sentences tend to slow it down.

Here is an example using a long sentence:

He looked out of the window, noticing the girl who, at that moment, was walking towards the
heavy door to the library.

Notice the difference in pace when the same scene is described with short sentences:

He looked out of the window. He noticed the girl. She was walking towards the library door.

Varying sentence openings

Vary the way that you start sentences to keep your writing interesting and lively. For example:

Start your sentence with a… Example

verb – an action word Running for her life, Sarah shouted at the bus to stop.

simile - comparing something to something else As quiet as a whisper, he turned to me.

preposition – indicates the position of someone or something Beyond the gate, the road stretched far away.

adverb – modifies or describes a verb, adjective or another Cautiously, he moved away from the lion.
 Start your sentence with a… Example

adverb

Despite the sunshine, Mr Tucker was wearing a heavy

connective – joining word
coat.

Here’s a piece of writing that lacks variety:

I woke up. The sun was beaming through the window and warmed my face. I turned towards it,
closing my eyes to enjoy the moment. I stayed there for a moment and then got out of bed. I
padded across to the window. I opened it to hear the birds outside. It looked like it was going to
be a good day.

Although this is well written, notice that most sentences start in the same way. The writer has
mostly used simple sentences throughout.

Here is a second draft of this paragraph. Notice how the variety of sentences changes the feel of
the piece:

I opened my eyes to the warmth of the sun that was beaming through the window. Turning
towards it, I closed my eyes. Moments later I got out of bed and padded across to the window. I
opened it and heard the birds outside. I knew it was going to be a good day.

Planning and proofreading

Planning and proofreading should bookend your writing process. In the planning phase you
prepare your ideas and narrativestructure. When you have finished, proofread carefully to check
that your writing is working.

Planning to write

Planning is an important part of the fiction writing process. Many professional writers use a plan
as the basis for a first draft, which they will later edit several times before the work is complete.

There are several different ways to plan a piece of writing. Try them all and find the one that
works for you. You could:

 create a mind map

 bullet point your ideas
 create a flow chart of each stage
 create a table
 What to include in a plan

A plan is an outline of your ideas. You could use the five-stage story arc to help structure your
narrative.

You could also use your plan to remind you of key features you want to include - figurative
language, variety of sentence structures, TiPToP paragraphs. You can also use your plan as a
place to write down particular words and phrases to include.

Proofreading

When you have completed a piece of writing, it is a good idea to read over what you have
created. Read once for sense, making sure the sentences flow and that the paragraphs are in the
right places. If you are writing by hand and realise that you missed a paragraph break, insert
the // symbol to indicate where you want the new paragraph to start.

Read a second time, checking spelling and punctuation. Read slowly to make sure you haven’t
missed out any important words.

It’s easy to make mistakes when you’re in your creative flow! Make time to read your writing
with critical eyes so you can spot your errors and put them right.

Sample question
Question

Write about a time when you, or someone you know, were surprised.

Attempt 1

It was windy and wet and the road was full of big puddles. Walking along whistling he was
making his way home from school in a bit of a dream. He’d got out early because of the bad
weather. Which is why he’s whistling. He doesn’t much like wind or rain but he likes being let
out of school early. That’s when it happens this car comes out of nowhere and just drove right
through the biggest puddle you’d ever seen. It splashed up him as he stands there drenched not
knowing what had hit him, he just knew he’d be in for it when he got home because his new
parka was filthy and his mum would be furious.

Feedback - basic
 Shows an awareness of the purpose of the task and begins to write an entertaining story.
 Uses some figurative language, eg alliteration ‘windy and wet’.
 Uses some variety of sentence structure, eg starts with verb ‘Walking along’.
 Some variety of vocabulary.
 The ideas are linked well and the structure of the paragraph is good.
 To improve
 More control of the narrative voice needed. Verb tenses vary from present to past and should use one or the
other.
 More sentence variety would make this a livelier piece.
 More attention to punctuation needed – some confusion between commas and full stops.
 Vocabulary choices could be more ambitious.

Attempt 2

The wind howled and the rain battered down. The roads were more like a lake than a city centre
– full of puddles. Walking along whistling, a schoolboy was making his way home from school.
He was in a bit of a dream. He’d been let out early because of the bad weather. He didn’t much
like the wind or the rain but he was thrilled at being let out early. That was why he was
whistling. You would think it was a summer’s day! That was when it happened. The car came out
of nowhere and just drove right through what was more like a miniature lake than a puddle. The
water just flew up from the road and showered over the boy who stood there drenched. He didn’t
know what to do but he knew he’d be told off when he got home. He was wearing his brand new
parka which his mum and dad bought him for his birthday at the weekend.

Feedback - improving
 Communicates in a clear and effective way and matches the purpose of entertaining with the story form and
the intended audience.
 Images and ideas link to create a well-structured narrative.
 Sentences are more varied in length creating a lively voice and helping the story to flow.
 Vocabulary choices and imagery are increasing in variety and begin to be ambitious (eg ‘howled’, ‘like a
miniature lake’).

To improve
 More variety in sentence types and structure is needed – many of the sentences in the first paragraph begin
with ‘he’.
 Paragraphs could be used to build tension.
 The writer should try to include the senses and aim to use more figurative language.

Attempt three

The wind howled like a banshee turning the rain into a salvo of bullets. Was this a November
day in Oxford? It was more like the monsoon season in Delhi! The roads were covered in
puddles the size of small lakes. Walking along and seemingly unaware of it all was a schoolboy.
Whistling as he strolled along, hands in his pockets, he was casually making his way home from
school. To say he was in a bit of a dream was an understatement. He’d been let out early
because of the bad weather and, although he didn’t much like either wind or rain he was in his
new parka and, best of all, he was thrilled to the core at being let out of school early. That was
why he was whistling. To him it was a summer’s day!
 That was when it happened.

A car came out of nowhere and drove right through a puddle that was doing a very good
impression of a miniature lake. The water leapt up from the road with a life of its own and
drenched the day-dreaming boy. He was jolted out of his reverie and stood there dazed and
drenched. He didn’t know what to do, but he knew he’d be in for it when he got home. His brand
new parka had turned from green to a kind of dirty khaki-brown. This wasn’t going to be fun.
The parka had been a very expensive present from mum and dad.

Feedback - even better

 The story is absorbing and convincing.
 It maintains a consistent viewpoint.
 The tone, style and voice all match purpose, form and audience to create an engaging narrative.
 The sentences are varied in length and type to create a lively style.
 Punctuation is accurate throughout and sophisticated in places.
 Spelling is accurate and vocabulary choices are ambitious (eg ‘banshee’, ‘understatement’, ‘reverie’ and ‘khaki-
brown’).
 The description is impressive with some good uses of figurative language eg ‘like a banshee’, ‘thrilled to the
core’, ‘leapt up’ and ‘dazed and drenched’).

What is non-fiction and transactional

writing?
Texts that deal with facts, opinions and the real world are usually described as non-fiction.
Transactional writing is non-fiction writing that intends to communicate information between
individuals or groups.

Non-fiction texts include (amongst others):

 magazine articles
 travel writing
 obituaries
 autobiography
 reference books
Transactional texts include (amongst others):

 letters
 emails
 speeches
 Different text types, or forms of non-fiction have particular conventions. These are the typical or
expected features of a form and include structure, language and tone. For example, a newspaper
article usually has a headline, uses formal language and takes a serious tone. A political speech
usually addresses the audience directly, includes persuasive language and often has a rousing
tone.

With all writing tasks it is important to consider:

 the conventions of the form

PLUS

 your intended audience (reader)

 the purpose of your writing
Your reader might be one particular person, as with an email or letter. Or it might be a broader
group of people, as with an article or speech.

Having a clear purpose will allow you to select language best suited to your task. For example, if
your purpose is to entertain, your tone might be light-hearted. If your purpose is to persuade, you
might include rhetorical devices.

Writing a speech

Structure

A speech often follows a three part structure:

1. a highly engaging and motivational opening

2. a well-structured argument with several main points that include objection handling
3. a dynamic and memorable conclusion

Language

A speech should be clear, coherent and should maintain a consistent point of view. The language
you use will vary depending on your audience. In a speech to a professional audience, such as a
business pitch or a talk to headteachers, formal language is more appropriate.
The purpose of a speech is often to convince listeners of a particular point of view. Language is
typically persuasive.

Here are some persuasive devices you could include to make your speech more dynamic and
memorable:

NB Examples are all from a speech against school uniforms.

Persuasive
Definition Example
device

A question posed to an audience, to which the

Rhetorical Wouldn’t you feel happier if you could wear what you
speaker predicts the answer and gains support
question wanted to school?
from the audience by asking.

Grouping words or ideas in threes makes them School uniforms are uncomfortable, itchy and worst of
Rule of three
memorable and persuasive. all, bland.

Many students are forced to suffer the indignity of

Emotive
Language that appeals to the emotions. wearing clothes that do not match their personal style
language
for the duration of their school careers.

Handling Consider what your opposition might say and Some people might say that uniforms save time,
objections deal with it before they do. however…

Hyperbole Using exaggeration for effect. Millions of school children every year…

Using real life examples to support your

Anecdote One girl in a school in Dartford claims…
argument.

Personal Using ‘we’, ‘I’, ‘you’ to make your audience feel

We all know how unimaginative school uniforms are…
pronouns included.

Example

Here’s a passage from a speech by Barack Obama about climate change. Notice how he shapes
his language to match his audience and purpose:

We, the people, still believe that our obligations as Americans are not just to ourselves but to all
prosperity. We will respond to the threat of climate change, knowing that the failure to do so
will betray our children and future generations.

Some may still deny the overwhelming judgement of science, but none can avoid
the devastating impact of raging fires, crippling drought or powerful storms. A path towards
sustainable energy sources will be long and sometimes difficult, but America cannot resist this
transition.
 We must lead it! We cannot concede to other nations the technology that will power new jobs
and new industries; we must claim its promise. That’s how we will maintain our economic
vitality and our national treasure. You and I as citizens have the power to set this country’s
course. You and I as citizens have the obligation to shape the debates of our time not only with
the votes we cast but with the voices we lift in defence of our most ancient values and enduring
ideas. Will you join us?

 the audience is American citizens

 the purpose is to convince people to take responsibility for acting on climate change
 note the repeated use of the personal pronoun ‘we’ within the opening paragraph to engage the listeners
 he deals with objections using the phrase ‘Some may still deny’ suggesting that the opposition are in a minority
‘some’ and that their position is unsteady ‘may’
 in the second paragraph, Obama uses the highly emotivelanguage ‘devastating’, ‘crippling’ and ‘powerful’ to
influence his listeners and to highlight the negative impact that climate change has had on America
 Obama then ends on a powerful message, using 'we' and 'our' to suggest to the audience that they are all
together and he is working with them
 he uses forceful language and imperatives in the repeated ‘We must’
 he finishes with a rhetorical question, calling the audience to take action

Writing a letter

Structure

A formal letter has a conventional structure. The sender’s postal address goes in the top right
hand corner. The recipient’s postal address is written to the left and slightly below this with the
date underneath.

A letter then opens with the greeting ‘Dear…’ If you do not know the name of the person you are
writing to (for example if you were emailing a company about a product, rather than a particular
person that works there), the convention is to start your letter with: ‘Dear Sir/Madam’.

The initial paragraph usually outlines the overall aim of the letter, and the conclusion
summarises the main points.

Conventionally, there are different ways to end a letter, depending on the addressee.
If you have named the recipient at the start, (eg Dear Mr Banks/Dear Freya) your letter ends with
‘Yours sincerely’.

If you haven’t named the recipient at the start (eg Dear Sir/Madam) your letter ends with ‘Yours
faithfully’.

Language

In a formal letter, the convention is to use Standard English. The tone of your letter will vary
depending on your purpose.

Example

Here is an example of a job application letter (minus the sender's postal address and recipient's
address). The writer’s overall purpose is to persuade the reader of their suitability for the role.

20th July 2016

Dear Mr Hopkins,

I am writing in response to the recent advertisement for the position of sales assistant that has
become available in your shop. I would like to be considered for the position.

I am currently working in a local coffee shop, where I am responsible for the service and
distribution of food and drink to customers. I am a key holder for the premises, and my daily
duties include taking orders, dealing with customer queries and managing the till takings at the
end of the working day. I work as part of a small team to ensure that the needs of the customers
are met.

Before working in the coffee shop, I spent several years working as a sales assistant in a
bookshop. In this role, I gained extensive experience of organisation, stocktaking and meeting
specific requests for customer orders. In this full-time role, I developed interpersonal skills and
confidence within customer service.

In addition to this I can offer competent skills with Microsoft Office software and I am currently
completing an evening course in accounting. I have included details of my GCSE qualifications
in my attached CV.

Thank for you taking the time to read my application; I look forward to hearing from you.

Yours sincerely,

Marisa Ahmed

The opening paragraph outlines the purpose of the letter to the recipient. The writer then explains
their previous experience in sales and refers to their qualifications to show that they are suitable.
The closing paragraph refers back to the overall purpose, and assumes that the writer expects to
hear from the recipient - this shows confidence.
 Formal language is used and the writer ends her letter with ‘Yours sincerely’ because she has
used her recipient’s name at the start.

Writing an article
Writing an article - a guide to structuring and writing an effective piece of non-fiction

Here are a few places where you might expect to find an article:

 a magazine
 a website
 certain sections of a newspaper (NB an article is different to a news report)
An article is a piece of writing (usually around 800-2000 words) about a particular topic.
Sometimes an article will offer a balanced view of a subject. At other times an article might
be biasedtowards a person or political standpoint.

An article might also be flavoured by the writer’s style. Depending on the purpose of your
article, you might use very direct informative language or more poetic language to create a sense
of the subject matter.

Here are some typical subjects covered by article writers:

 travel
 sport
 history
 hobbies/home/craft
 music
 celebrities/famous figures (eg an article about an actor’s life and career)

Structure

The basic structure of an article for a newspaper, magazine or website, is usually in three parts:

 opening – engaging the reader, or outlining the main point of the article
 middle – a series of paragraphs that go into more detail
 end – a concluding paragraph that draws the points together
Within this structure you could also create a circular structure in which the conclusion connects
back to the opening idea.

For example, an article about Kerala in India opens with the writer describing the view from a
train. The middle section describes Alappuzha, the place the writer is travelling away from and
goes into details about a boat trip they took there. In the concluding paragraph, the writer
brings us back to the train and muses on the highlights of his trip.

Language

The language of an article depends upon the purpose and audience. The language of the article
will fit the content and the intended readers. For example, an article about a recent film release
would include language that deals with actors, scripts and performance and is likely to include
the writer’s opinions of the film.

Articles usually have a catchy, memorable headline. This helps to grab the reader’s attention and
entice them to read the whole article.

Articles are usually written in Standard English, but colloquialsayings or phrases might be used
to emphasise a point. Literary techniques such as metaphor and simile make your writing more
interesting and engaging. Persuasive devices, such as rule of three, rhetorical
questions and hyperbole can encourage the reader to agree with your point of view.

Example

Here’s an extract from an article that tries to persuade the reader to eat a more balanced, healthy
diet:

Eat Right: Live Longer

It has been scientifically proven that the less junk food a person consumes, the longer they are
likely to live. So why isn’t everyone dumping the junk? Jordan McIntyre investigates.

Fast food equals fat

A staple part of twenty-first century British home-life is the weekly takeaway treat: finger-
licking burgers, sticky ribs and crispy chicken wings are, for many, the normal Friday night
feast. The average national calorie count in the UK is a whopping 4500 a day, a key factor in the
obesity cases that are soaring. Fast food is packed with fat and obesity contributes to a range of
health issues - most significantly heart disease and depression. So why aren’t we changing our
lifestyles?

Short on time

Families these days are spending less and less time at home during the working week. School
commitments, work meetings and extra curricular activities mean that time is short and fewer
people are prepared to put in the effort to prepare fresh, healthy meals.

And when time is tight, it seems we are even more willing to compromise our waistlines for a
little bit of what we fancy – fast fatty food.

Eat yourself healthy

 However, Georgia Thomas of the University of Food says, ‘I am convinced that it is possible to
live a busy lifestyle AND prepare healthy, satisfying meals. It seems that people have simply got
out of the habit of cooking. We are busy people; how do we reward ourselves? You guessed it -
food.’ Britain clearly needs to shift the stodge, and fast.

The headline grabs the reader's interest and introduces the article. The writer uses parallelism by
using two imperative or command phrases 'Eat well' followed by 'live longer'. Alliteration is
also used with the repetition of 'l'.

The rhetorical question in the opening paragraph encourages the reader to engage with the
topic. The subheadings direct the reader through the text, and act as mini headlines. The writer
uses colloquial sayings such as ‘a little bit of what we fancy’ and ‘shift the stodge’ to create a
lively, conversational tone.

The final paragraph uses quotations from an expert to add credibility to the argument. You would
expect the article to go on to explore how we can eat healthily and to conclude with an
explanation of how easy it is to do this.

Sample task and responses

Task

Write an article for a magazine in which you argue for or against public libraries.

In your article you could include:

 how libraries are used

 how libraries compare to the internet
 the positives and negatives of using public libraries

Attempt one

Go to the library

We shouldn’t get rid of libraries because they are places where a lot of people like to go. For
example students. The books are free which means no one has to waste their money on more
books and can just borrow them and have them on loan. This is useful if you’re skint. Teachers
keep going on about how the Internet isn’t really the best place to get your information for
research and stuff. They say if you use books it’s more trusting. So we should keep libraries so
we can use books and double check the things we read online or find out more about it all. It’s
like we’re trying to put everything from books onto the internet, so maybe one day it will all be
online anyway and then we won’t need libraries after all. For now though, they are good.

Feedback – basic
 Makes a clear argument.
 Attempts to use formal Standard English.

To improve
 Paragraphs would help to make this piece easier to follow.
 Some sentences run on and would be better split into shorter sentences.
 Avoid using slang: ‘skint’, ‘going on’.
 Develop each point in more detail.

Attempt two

Books are Better

Libraries are places of learning and have been used by students for many centuries. They are
valuable to society and let people have access to books without having to buy them. For many of
us they are the place we develop a love of books.

A lot of the information on the Internet is untrustworthy. Some sources that students use, such as
Wikipedia, can be edited and have often been changed by members of the public just for a laugh.

A lot of the information on the Internet is untrustworthy. Some sources that students use, such as
Wikipedia, can be edited and have often been changed by members of the public just for a laugh.

Feedback – improving
 Alliteration in the headline is effective.
 Establishes a clear and increasingly convincing argument.
 Language mostly appropriate for audience and form – Standard English used throughout.
 Personal pronouns include the readers.

To improve
 Include more sophisticated vocabulary.
 Include literary techniques to make the writing more engaging.
 Develop the argument more thoroughly.

Attempt three

Bring on the Books!

It seems that more and more people are glued to their screens these days. You see them walking
through the streets, phones in hand, barely even noticing the world around them. They’re like
zombies, not really present in the real world at all. And their brains are rotting away because
rather than relying on books for information and memory, they outsource their minds to the
Internet.
 This is a potentially dangerous habit. In fact, for many people, their dependency on the Internet
is bordering on serious addiction.

What they need is bibliotherapy – and the library is just the place to get it!

Libraries are storehouses of books. And books are more reliable than websites. They have been
through a process of checking and editing that doesn’t always happen online. Our libraries are
valuable resources. Rather than trading them in for social spaces, we should find ways to make
more of them.

In fact, destroying libraries in favour of social spaces would be criminal. There are already
plenty of places where people can go to socialise: coffee shops, leisure centres and parks, to
name a few. The beauty of the library is that it is a sanctuary. It is a place of peaceful focus and
learning.

Let’s make use of our libraries…and our brains!

Feedback – even better

 A convincing and lively argument.
 Appropriate language used throughout.
 Some sophisticated vocabulary choices: ‘dependency’, ‘sanctuary’, ‘bibliotherapy’.
 A memorable headline using alliteration and imperative to engage the reader.
 Emotive language used persuasively: ‘destroying libraries…would be criminal’.
 Uses a simile: ‘like zombies’.

To improve
 The points could be clearer, but overall this is very good.

Planning

By failing to prepare, you are preparing to fail.Benjamin Franklin

A plan should help you focus on what you want to include in your writing. It should also be a
way putting your ideas in order and sorting out the structure before you begin.
 Different methods of planning work for different people. Be willing to try out different
approaches before deciding which one works best for you.

Mind maps
A mind map is a visual way of planning where keywords are used to connect ideas with lines.
Mind maps are a flexible way of jotting down ideas and making links. You can easily add to a
mind map as you go along. It can become a working document that you add to as you write.

Use a mind map to put down all the ideas you have around a topic. Separate branches could
represent each subtopic and connect key words to each. It might also be useful to add in any
specific literary techniques, persuasive techniques or examples of vocabulary that you want to
include.

Branches of your mind map could represent each paragraph of your writing and link your ideas
and key vocabulary.

Some people start with a mind map to get their ideas down, then use bullet points to put these
ideas in order.

Bullet points
When you make a plan with bullet points, you essentially make a list. One advantage of using
bullet points to plan is that it’s easier to write longer phrases and sentences.

Here’s an example of how you might use bullet points to plan.

Question
Write an article for young people that offers advice on how to deal with the stresses of modern
life.

To include:

 causes of stress - mobile phones, social media, bullying, exam pressure, parents
 health problems - stress sometimes leads to: sleep deprivation, weight loss, isolation,
confusion
 how to overcome stress - take a break from technology, sleep well, see friends, eat well
Remember to:

 use headlines – From Stress to Rest? Go Easy on Yourself? Take a Tech Break?
 include - similes, interesting vocab, rhetorical question, alliteration
 Audience:

 young people
Purpose:

 to inform/warn/advise
Article:

 headline
 more formal language
You could colour code or number your bullet points to put them in order for writing.

Flow chart
A flow chart is like a mind map that provides a visual structure for planning. It helps you to order
your ideas and paragraphs into an effective structure.

Some writers find a flow chart helps them focus on each important stage of the writing process.

For example, this flow chart shows the planning for an article about social media.

 The writer will begin the article exploring the dangers surrounding social media.
 This will be followed by the negative aspects - such as overuse and cyberbullying.
 The focus will then shift to the positive side of social media, such as connecting with people
and having a constant stream of news.
 The third section of the article will focus on offering the reader advice about social media,
encouraging them to take care online.
 In conclusion, the writer will summarise what life was like before social media, balanced with
the opportunities it now offers.

Table
A table can be useful if you’re writing a piece that covers different points of view, eg in an
article where you explore both sides of an argument.

Question
Write a feature article for a newspaper in which you explore the pros and cons of going to music
festival.
 Introduction For Against Summarise Proofread

Explain what a festival is Conclude that Check spelling –

Fun, sociable – time Expensive – too much
– refer to Glastonbury, festivals are include sophisticated
with friends for teens
Download and V worth it vocabulary

Opportunity to relax Dangerous – big and

Include range of
– especially after scary – too many
punctuation
stress of exams people – alcohol

Introduction to new Have to camp – smelly,

music uncomfortable

10 minutes 10 minutes 10 minutes 5 minutes 5 minutes

Note how the writer of this plan has allocated a specific time for each section, and has also
included a reminder to leave time to proofread their writing.

Key things to remember

 Try different plans and use the one that works best for you.
 Include reminders of key areas to focus on within your writing.
 Think about allocating your time carefully so that you complete your writing.

Editing and proofreading

By the time I am nearing the end of a story, the first part will have been reread and altered and corrected at least
one hundred and fifty times. I am suspicious of both facility and speed. Good writing is essentially rewriting. I am
positive of this.Roald Dahl
Proofreading

Proofreading involves reading back over your work to check for mistakes that you might have
missed and to edit or improve what you have written. All professional writers revise their work
over and over again to improve or alter it until they are satisfied.

Here are a few things to focus on in your proofreading:

Capital letters
Read back over your work and check that each sentence starts with a capital letter. Check that
you have also used capital letters for names and places. If you have used the personal pronoun
‘I’, make sure it is a capital. Make sure you haven’t accidentally placed capital letters mid-word
or sentence.

Omissions
It is quite common to miss words out when you’re writing under pressure, or even to miss letters
from words. Check your writing, to make sure that your sentences are complete.

Punctuation
Check that your sentences end with full stops. Check you haven’t put commas where full stops
or connectives would be more effective.

Spelling
Even the most expert of spellers will make simple spelling mistakes when writing under
pressure. Prepare thoroughly and learn spelling rules and strategies.

What to improve
When you proofread, try to imagine you are reading your work for the first time, or that you are
reading someone else’s work. If you had to give that person advice on how to improve, what
would you ask them to change? It is a really useful skill to be able to edit and improve your own
work.

Organising information and ideas

Paragraphs
Deciding on the order of your writing

Once you have planned your ideas for a piece of writing, you need to work out the best order for
your paragraphs.

In both fiction and non-fiction writing, paragraphs give your writing shape. In a short story,
writers often build up to the most exciting moment. Similarly, in an article or speech, writers
tend to lead to their most important point.

Example
Here’s an example of a non-fiction writing task.

Write an article to inspire young people to follow their dreams.

Here’s a suggested plan:

In this plan, the introduction includes examples of dreams that this audience might have. The
purpose of the article is to inspire young people to follow their dreams, so the benefits are
included in the introduction, making this purpose clear.
 The next paragraphs use examples from real life as inspiration. The first paragraph refers more
generally to successful individuals who have overcome all odds and the next one deals
specifically with J K Rowling and her story of perseverance.

The next section looks at difficulties and, as this is an inspirational article, suggests ways of
overcoming these.

Then the article offers advice for young people to help them achieve their goals.

The final paragraph reminds the readers of the benefits of following a dream, bringing the article
full circle.

Notice how this plan builds up and deals with one point in each paragraph.

Signposting and linking ideas

The first sentence in a paragraph should contain the main idea. The sentences which follow,
support and expand upon that initial sentence. They add to the main idea. This is true in both
fiction and non-fiction writing. The first sentence is sometimes known as the topic sentence
because it features the main topic or point of the paragraph. For example:

Fiction

Hardy was a kind man. He gave generously to charities and always had a smile for whoever
came into his shop. Around his eyes were wrinkles that looked like the rays of a sun drawn by a
child.

Non-fiction

School uniform is uncomfortable. Invariably made from man-made materials such as polyester
and nylon, the trousers, skirts and blazers that many students are forced to wear every day, do not
allow the skin to breathe.

Linking paragraphs

Your paragraphs should follow on from each other in a logical order. One way of connecting
them is to use transitional words or phrases. These indicate the relationship between a paragraph
and a previous one. These are used in both fiction and non-fiction, though should be used
sparingly in both.

To add to a point
 In addition…
 Furthermore…
 It could also be said that…

To make a comparison
 Likewise…
 Similarly…
 In the same way…

To make a contrast
 On the other hand…
 Conversely…
 In contrast…

To conclude
 In summary…
 Overall…
 In a nutshell…

Key points to remember:

 Decide on the order of your paragraphs.

 Use topic sentences to summarise your paragraphs.
 Link your paragraphs and consider using transition words or phrases.

Sentence structures and variety

Varying how sentences start

Changing the way that sentences open makes a piece of reading more interesting and engaging
for the reader. There are many ways to do this.

Example
Take the sentence 'The man shouted out of the window'.

Start your sentence with… Example

…an adverb to describe the verb Frantically, the man shouted out of the window.

…a connective to place the event in relation to other action within

Consequently, the man shouted out of the window.
the text

Like a terrified beast, the man shouted out of the

…a simile
window.

…a verb Waving, the man shouted out of the window.

In the following examples, see how the writer changes the sentence openers to create variety for
the reader:

Attempt 1
I walked into the room. The lights shone brightly. People were everywhere and the music was
blaring. There were people outside talking. I saw my friends in the corner of the room and went
over to join them.

Attempt 2
Cautiously, I walked into the room. Overhead, the lights shone brightly. People were
everywhere and the music was blaring. Outside, there were people talking. With a sigh of
relief, I saw my friends in the corner of the room and like a shot, I hurried over to join them.

Aim to find a balance and include some simple sentences for pace.

Sentence types
Aim to use a variety of sentence types in your writing. Too much of one thing can become
boring.

Simple sentence
A simple sentence contains one clause or main idea. It includes a subject and a verb and
sometimes an object as well.

For example:

I like books. (I = subject, like = verb, books = object)

My cat is wild. (My cat = subject, is = verb, wild = adjective)

James sings loudly. (James = subject, sings = verb, loudly = adverb)

Compound sentences
A compound sentence contains two main clauses joined by a connective that shows the
relationship between the two pieces of information.

For example:

I like books and I read regularly.

James sings loudly so I turn my music up.

My cat is wild although she sometimes comes indoors.

 You do not need a comma in the middle of a compound sentence. Other connectives include: but, and, whereas,
so, although, after.
Complex sentences
A complex sentence combines a main clause with a subordinate clause.

A subordinate clause adds extra information to a main clause. A subordinate clause needs a main
clause to make sense.

For example:

When he’s in the car, James sings loudly.

My cat, which is five years old, is wild.

Fragments
Fragments are partial sentences, phrases or single words and can be used (sparingly!) to
emphasise a point or add interest to your writing.

For example:

She would be sixteen on Friday. Sixteen. Already.

He was looking forward to the trip. China, at last.

Key points to remember

 Use transitional words and phrases to link your paragraphs.

 Vary the ways you open your sentences.
 Use a variety of sentence types.

Using language effectively

Literary techniques
How to use descriptive language techniques effectively

Descriptive language is used to help the reader feel almost as if they are a part of the scene or
event being described. Description is useful because it helps readers engage with the world of the
story, often creating an emotional response. It can help a reader visualise what a character or a
place is like.

There are a number of literary techniques that can make descriptions more vivid and creative.
Here are some examples:
 Technique Examples

Simile - compares one thing with another using

The trees stood as tall as towers.
'as' or 'like'.

Metaphor - uses an image or idea to represent The circus was a magnet for the children. (ie The children were pulled
something else. towards the circus).

Personification - a use of obvious exaggeration

The sun scorched through the day.
for rhetorical effect.

Onomatopoeia - words sound like the noise they

The autumn leaves and twigs cracked and crunchedunderfoot.
represent.

Alliteration - repetition of a consonant sound in a

The seahorse spiralled, seeking safety and solace.
series of words.

Assonance - repetition of a vowel sounds in a

He sneezed and wheezed, could hardly breathe.
series of words.

Oxymoron - a phrase combining two or more

There was a deafening silence
contradictory terms.

Antithesis - putting two opposite ideas together ‘That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.’ (Neil
to highlight contrasts. Armstrong)

Parenthesis - a phrase that adds extra detail. Jess, who was fifteen, loved her English lessons.

Example

In the example below, look at how the writer uses literary techniques to create a vivid
description.

The ground crumbled like icing sugar under my feet as I heaved towards the summit. The trees
below were dots to my squinting eyes. The sun was relentless and beat down on my back as I
wiped drips of salty sweat from my neckline. The deafening silence of the chasm below filled
me with dread. Suddenly, eagles came into view, breaking the silence, screeching in hunger.

Analysis
The writing opens with a simile to show the texture of the ground. The sun is personified: it is
described as ‘relentless’, giving it a ruthless personality. The silence is described as ‘deafening’,
an oxymoron that helps emphasise how unbearable the situation is for the character. Pathetic
fallacy has also been used here - the uncomfortable heat mirrors the character’s struggle as she
continues on her journey. These literary techniques make the writing more interesting and draw
the reader into the details of the scene.
Rhetorical devices
How to use persuasive language techniques effectively

Persuasive language is used for many reasons, for example, to help to sell products or services,
or to convince people to accept a view or idea. Politicians often use rhetorical devices in their
speeches. These techniques can be powerful tools for getting what you want.

Here are some types of rhetorical techniques and examples of how they can be used:

Technique Examples

Flattery - complimenting your audience. A person of your intelligence deserves much better than this.

Hyperbole - exaggerated language used for

It is simply out of this world – stunning!
effect.

You are the key to this entire idea succeeding - we will be with you all the
Personal pronouns - ‘I’, ‘you’ and ‘we’.
way. I can’t thank you enough!

Imperatives - instructional language. Get on board and join us!

Safer streets means comfort, reassurance and peace of mindfor you,

Triples - grouping language in threes.
your family and your friends.

Emotive language - language that appeals to

There are thousands of animals at the mercy of our selfishness.
the emotions.

Statistics and figures - factual data used in a 80% of people agreed that this would change their community for the
persuasive way. better.

Rhetorical question - a question which

Who doesn’t want success?
implies its own answer.

Example

William Wallace led the Scottish rebellion against Edward I in the fourteenth century. His
exploits were made into the film Braveheart. In this extract from his speech for freedom, notice
the techniques he uses to convince his audience.

I am William Wallace. And I see a whole army of my countrymen, here in defiance of tyranny!
You have come to fight as free men. And free men you are! What will you do without freedom?
Will you fight? Yes! Fight and you may die. Run and you will live at least awhile. And dying in
your bed many years from now, would you be willing to trade all the days from this day to that
 for one chance, just one chance, to come back here as young men and tell our enemies that they
may take our lives but they will never take our freedom!

William Wallace speech from Braveheart (1995)

Analysis
Wallace uses personal pronouns (‘I', 'you', 'our’) to make the audience feel as though he is
speaking to them on an individual level. The repeated use of ‘free’ emphasises the main theme of
his speech. He also uses rhetorical questions, one after the other to impact the audience - they
feel that they must fight to protect their freedom. The closing sentence is highly emotive and
asks his listeners to imagine a future version of themselves. He ends his speech with the key
word ‘freedom’ making his point once again.

Vocabulary
Expanding your vocabulary
The more words you know, the more clearly and powerfully you will think...and the more ideas you will invite into
your mind.Wilfred Funk, Editor, writer, lexicographer and publisher
There are plenty of ways to expand your vocabulary. One particularly effective method is to keep
your own word journalwhere you list new words as you find them.

You could organise this by date, topic, in alphabetical order or you could group words with
similar meanings together. When you encounter a new word, make a note of it. Look it up in a
dictionary to establish its correct meaning and to find out how best to use it in a sentence. Use
a thesaurus to find synonyms.

Aim to use your new vocabulary as soon as possible to establish its meaning in your mind.

You can discover new words:

 by reading widely and including challenging reading material

 by using a dictionary and thesaurus
 by listening to talks, talk radio shows, news programmes, etc
 by listening to your teachers
 by using apps that offer you a ‘Word of the Day’

Using your vocabulary

Use your vocabulary wisely and aim for a good range that suits your audience and purpose. This
is true for both your fiction and non-fiction writing.

Long words are not always the most effective ones, eg:
 It was a sweltering sunny day.

is different to:

It was a thermogenic, undarkened sunrise-to-sunset.

Make sure you understand how to use the words in a sentence. For example ‘thermogenic’
doesn’t make much sense in the above sentence. It means to produce heat, but is used to describe
drugs or products that produce heat in the body.

When you proofread your work, try alternative words - synonyms – and notice the effects of
these different vocabulary choices. Where possible, use precise words, full of descriptive energy,
to bring your writing to life.

Use precise verbs

A way to liven up a piece of writing is to choose action words - verbs - with great care. Use
words to show the reader the actions or behaviour of a character. For example:

He walked into the room and said, “This is what I was waiting for.”

By choosing more precise verbs, you can give ‘depth’ to your writing. This gives the reader a
more vivid impression of your scene and characters.

Notice how each of the following sentences changes your perception of the character:

He strolled into the room and muttered, “This is what I was waiting for.”

He marched into the room and barked, “This is what I was waiting for.”

He shuffled into the room and sobbed, “This is what I was waiting for.”

Think about the impression and the atmosphere you’re aiming to create as you make your
vocabulary choices.

Use lively, interesting words

Here are some examples of overused words:

 good
 nice
 very
 happy
 big
 hate
 said
 walked
Can you think of alternative words that you could use for each – words that are more precise,
lively or interesting? Consider what the reader should feel about the place, person or topic that
you are describing.

Suggestions

 Good - superb, fantastic, excellent, brilliant, outstanding, spectacular.

 Nice - marvellous, enjoyable, pleasant, wonderful, glorious.
 Very - extremely, highly, deeply, terribly, hugely, massively.
 Happy - ecstatic, cheerful, pleased, overjoyed, elated, thrilled.
 Big - huge, gigantic, ginormous, enormous, colossal, immense.
 Hate - despise, detest, repulsed, loathe, condemn, dislike.
 Said - shouted, bellowed, whispered, sniggered, mumbled, grunted, sang, exclaimed.
 Walked - strutted, bounded, sprinted, ambled, trudged, wandered, trundled.

Vocabulary to create effects

Vocabulary can be used to influence the way a reader feels about a scene or topic. By selecting
words carefully you can create the atmosphere your scene requires or the tone your article needs.

For example, in a ghost story, you might select vocabulary to create a sense of fear:

Bats swooped dangerously close to my head as the haunting outline of the moon glared over
the silhouette of the gravestones. The stench of decay hung in the damp night air, as a warning to
those who dared to enter.

Here the vocabulary choices imply a feeling of danger and create a sinister tone.

Notice how in this second piece, also set in a churchyard, a positive mood is created:
 Doves soared overhead as we bustledfrom the church doorway. The clouds parted for
the beaming sun that warmed the backs of the guests. Confetti and the scent of perfumed
flowers filled the air; laughter twirledlike ribbons around the bride and groom.

By making careful vocabulary choices, you can create the mood to draw the reader emotionally
into your story. The language is lively and precise, full of energy to enliven the scene.

A similar approach can be used for non-fiction writing where your vocabulary choices will affect
the tone and mood of the piece you write.

Here are examples of different settings, and moods with sample sentences:

Setting Mood Example vocabulary

City Happy A bright sun glinted from the skyscraper windows…

Jungle Sad The baboons’ plaintive cries pierced our hearts…

Desert Determined The sand burned, the dust stung; but we marched on regardless…

Mountains Hopeful Small white cloudlets hovered so close to our heads we felt we could touch them…

Beach Excited Crabs scuttled hither and thither, children squealed in delight…

Things to remember

 Get into the habit of using a thesaurus.

 Experiment with different words in your writing.
 Keep a word journal to collect new words.
 List or mind-map your key vocabulary choices at the planning stage of your writing.
 Read back over your work to check your vocabulary choices. Are the words ambitious AND do they ‘fit’ with the
style of writing?
 Check that you haven’t accidentally repeated words in nearby sentences.
Punctuating sentences
Sentences should begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop, an exclamation mark or
a question mark.

Full stops

Full stops are essential to separate sentences. Below is an example of a piece of writing where
the full stops are missing. When you read it out loud, you will notice that it doesn’t quite make
sense. You might find that, to make it easier to read, you naturally insert pauses where full stops
should be:

This is an old city there are buildings that were constructed many hundreds of years ago one,
hidden down behind the steps in the main square, was built in the 11th century it is hard to
imagine how many feet have walked across its floors, how many hands have opened its doors
from its rooftops, ugly gargoyles snarl at passers-by the building is theirs, they seem to say we
are all newcomers here

Here it is again with full stops added:

This is an old city. There are buildings that were constructed many hundreds of years ago. One,
hidden down behind the steps in the main square, was built in the 11th century. It is hard to
imagine how many feet have walked across its floors, how many hands have opened its doors.
From its rooftops, ugly gargoyles snarl at passers-by. The building is theirs, they seem to say.
We are all newcomers here.

Notice how the piece has more shape with the full-stops included. It is easier to read and
understand.

Exclamation marks

Sentences can also finish with exclamation marks. These change the tone of a sentence, adding
emphasis, suggesting that it is shouted, or that the statement itself is outrageous. For example:

He ran up the hill. It was enormous!

She couldn’t believe what she was hearing. He was seven hundred years old!

‘Wait!’ he said. ‘Please.’

Use exclamation marks sparingly (and avoid the temptation to add more than one to the end of a
sentence!)

Question marks

An interrogative sentence is one that asks a question. This sort of sentence is indicated by a
question mark.
 For example:

 Where do you live?

 What is the square root of 49?
 Having read the manifestos of all the political parties, which way will you vote?

Commas

Commas are used to separate words in a list and clauses in a sentence.

Here are some examples of commas in lists:

Her bag contained climbing shoes, rope, karabiners, chalk and a map.

He had walked through the mountains in Wales, Scotland, Norway, Turkey and Greece.

She loved dancing, paragliding, reading, yoga and singing.

Note that if you use a list of adjectives to describe something, the last one does not use a comma.
For example:

He was a grumpy, old, small-minded man.

It was a blue-skied, wide-open, beautiful day.

In a complex sentence, use commas to separate the main and subordinate clauses.

For example:

 Jones runs the bakery, which is on Main Street.

 Sam Haskins, who broke his leg in a car accident, still managed to pass all his exams.

Sentence separation and comma splicing

A common mistake in writing is to place a comma where in fact a full stop is needed. This
misuse of the comma creates what is called a 'comma splice'. Aim to avoid comma splices in
your writing.

Proofread your work carefully and make sure you have put a full stop instead of a comma at the
end of each sentence.

For example:

The room filled with smoke, I froze in panic.

This is an example of a comma splice. The comma in the middle should not be there because
each half is a complete sentence in its own right.

So in fact the writer should have used two full sentences, each ending with a full stop. This
would make for two short, lively sentences.

The room filled with smoke. I froze in panic.

Alternatively - a connective could connect these two sentences:

The room filled with smoke and I froze in panic.

OR – as these two sentences are closely linked, a semi-colon would also work:

The room filled with smoke; I froze in panic.

Question
Identify the comma splices in the following piece of writing. As you find each comma,
think about what would happen if it were replaced with a full stop. Remember that the
two sentences each side of a full stop must be meaningful and complete.

I hadn’t been to Mo’s house before, he lived at the end of the street, next to the playing
fields. His front door was a faded blue, the paint peeled from the windowsills. The door
was unlocked, or rather, couldn’t lock because where the lock should have been there
was instead a hole. A piece of string hung limply from it and when we arrived Mo smiled
shyly, he wasn’t embarrassed, I don’t think, this was, after all, his home.

Hide answer
Without comma splices:

I hadn’t been to Mo’s house before. He lived at the end of the street, next to the playing
fields. His front door was a faded blue; the paint peeled from the windowsills. The door
was unlocked, or rather, couldn’t lock because where the lock should have been there
was instead a hole. A piece of string hung limply from it and when we arrived Mo smiled
shyly. He wasn’t embarrassed, I don’t think. This was, after all, his home.

Apostrophes
Apostrophes are used to signal two things to a reader:

1. possession (apostrophe + ‘s’)

2. omission (replaces a letter or letters in a word or words)

Possession

This is when one thing belongs to another. The apostrophe + ‘s’ shows ownership.

For example:
 Example 1 – The boy’s shoes were left outside the door.

Example 2 – The dog’s paws were dirty.

If the possessive noun is plural and ends in an ‘s’ already, then an apostrophe is placed at the end
of the word, but there is no need for the extra ‘s’:

For example:
Example 1- The boys’ (not boys’s) shoes were outside the door.

Example 2 - The dogs’ (not dogs’s) paws were dirty.

Work out where to put the apostrophe by thinking about what belongs to whom. 'The boy’s shoes were left
outside the door.' (The shoes belonging to the boy were left outside the door.) 'The boys’ shoes were left
outside the door.' (The shoes belonging to the boys were left outside the door.)
With singular nouns that end in an ‘s’, you can either add an apostrophe alone to show
possession, or you can add an apostrophe + ‘s’. Both are correct, but you should be consistent.

For example:
Example 1 – Mr Jones’s clock has stopped. Or - Mr Jones’ clock has stopped.

Example 2 – The class’s homework was due. Or - The class’homework was due.

Omission

This is when we miss out letters from words to shorten them, forming a 'contraction'.

For example:
Example 1 - do not becomes don’t.

Example 2 - could not becomes couldn’t.

Example 3 - cannot becomes can’t.

Example 4 - will not is irregular and becomes won’t.

Its and it's

Its (without an apostrophe) shows a relationship of possession, eg

 Its fur is smooth and shiny.

 The sun has got its hat on.
 The dog chased its tail.
It's uses an apostrophe to show contraction. It's is short for 'it is' (or sometimes 'it has').
 For example:
 It’s almost home time! = It is almost home time!
 It's got a lot of errors in it. = It has got a lot of errors in it.

Round brackets
These are used to add extra information:

Charles (never Charlie or Chad) was a serious young man.

Sandy’s pet dog (she detested cats) was fifteen years old.

If you are using brackets towards the end of a sentence, the full stop to complete the sentence
goes outside of the brackets:

Neharika wore the blue shoes (her sister, Amrita, had already chosen the red ones).

Sophisticated punctuation
Ellipsis

Three dots in a row are called ellipsis and can be used to signify that part of a sentence is
missing. It is mainly useful in dialogue. For example:

"I wonder…" said Harry.

The ellipsis suggests that Harry is thinking of something else.

Ellipsis can be used in the main body of your writing, where it also signifies an unfinished
sentence. For example:

He wondered when the train would arrive. He had to be in Basingstoke by 4pm or else…

In this example, the ellipsis leaves the reader to imagine the consequences. Like exclamation
marks, ellipses should be used sparingly. In general it is better to finish your sentences as this
makes for more coherent writing.

Colon

A colon is used to introduce an item or a list of items.

For example:

Gemma has two favourite friends: Chloe and Zak.

There was only one mountain left for her to tackle: Everest.
 Semi-colon

Linking related clauses

Use the semi-colon to link two independent clauses that are connected in meaning. For example:

I can’t go out tonight; I have lots of homework.

This could equally be written as:

I can’t go out tonight. I have lots of homework.

or

I can’t go out tonight because I have lots of homework.

The semi-colon can be used because the two clauses are closely related.

Here are a few more examples:

Bath is a beautiful city; the architecture is stunning and the shops are diverse.

Separating a list

Where a list consists of a series of phrases, a semi-colon helps the reader to group information.

For example:

The guests arrived at the party: Mr Jones, from Cardiff; Asha Ali, from Manchester; Ms Cohen,
from Hull.

In order to make a cake you’ll need: a large mixing bowl; finely milled flour; softened butter;
caster sugar and eggs; a good strong arm to stir it all together.

Things to remember
 Take special care over using commas. Check whether a full-stop or semi-colon would be more
effective.
 Avoid excessive use of exclamation marks!
 Be ambitious – practise using sophisticated punctuation such as semi-colons and colons.
 Proofread your work carefully.

Sentence types
 Simple sentences

These are sentences built from just one major clause. These have one main verb attached to the
subject. The subject can be one word or a phrase.

Example 1 - Spiders spin webs.

Example 2 - The shaggy-haired Siberian wolfhound sat outside.

Compound sentences

A compound sentence joins more than one major clause with a conjunction (such as ‘and’, ‘but’,
‘or’).

For example:

It was raining and Sher had forgotten his coat.

Sophie had seen a parrot before but she had never seen an owl.

Zeb could go to school or he could go to the library.

Complex sentences

A complex sentence includes a major clause and at least one subordinate clause. The term
‘complex’ here can be confusing. It does not mean the same as complicated. In fact some
‘complex’ sentences are very short and simple in meaning, eg ‘The cat mewed, until it was let
in.’, whereas a simple sentence can be long and complicated in appearance, eg ‘The wild,
ferocious Siberian wolfhound from London’s Regent Park zoo escaped six weeks ago.’

In the following examples, the clauses are in bold. Notice how the major clause works without
the subordinate clause:

The girl, who had long blonde hair, stood at the window.

While he does his homework, Jack listens to the radio.

Introduction
When analysing and responding to a text, look at how a writer uses form, structure and language
and think about the effect they have on the reader.

To put this simply, analyse:

 FORM - is the name of the text type that the writer uses. For example, scripts, sonnets,
novels etc. All of these are different text types that a writer can use. The form of a text is
 important because it indicates the writer's intentions, characters or key themes. In this case, we
are looking at how Stevenson creates his novel - looking at the different perspectives he uses.
 STRUCTURE - is how the plot is ordered and put together for the reader. You can think of
plot at a text level but also at a sentence level. In this case, we are looking at the order of
events in Stevenson's novel, how he presents his ideas and the structure of his sentences.
 LANGUAGE - the words a writer uses and what impact they have. In this case, we are
looking at the words Stevenson uses. What words does he use? Why? What effect does this
have? Does he employ any language devices in his writing? For example: metaphor, imagery,
alliteration, pathetic fallacy, etc.
Structure and Language
Structure

Picture courtesy of Michael Verhoef

The poem consists of nine stanzas that vary between two lines and five lines in length. There is
no pattern to the stanzas, perhaps to reflect the idea that there is no pattern or predictability to
our memories.

Language
Think about how the language the poet uses helps to convey his ideas. Here are some points to
consider:
 The title is blunt. It is only when we have read the poem carefully that we realise that all
three generation are involved in digging: his grandfather dug turf, his father dug up
potatoes, Heaney is digging up his memories and his past.
 The poem begins in the present tense as Heaney describes seeing his elderly father
straining among the flowerbeds, then goes into the past tense when he remembers his
father and grandfather at work. The last two stanzas return to the present, when Heaney
realises that his work is to write. The final line, however, is in the future tense, to emphasise
Heaney's determination - "I'll dig".
 Heaney remembers his own role in the digging: he and other children would gather the new
potatoes that his father dug up, and he was responsible for taking milk to his grandfather on
Toner's bog. It was this involvement that enabled him to watch his father and grandfather at
work and describe their movements so precisely.
 His father was clearly skilled at his work. Heaney remembers him "Stooping in rhythm
through potato drills" (line 8) and his boot and his knee fitted the spade perfectly (lines
10/11). He uses technical terms (lug, shaft) to stress that the spade is a precise tool. "By
God, the old man could handle a spade"(line 15) is a simple, loving exclamation of pride.
 He was also proud of his grandfather, who was so keen to work that he hardly stopped when
Heaney brought him some milk. His work was precise - "nicking and slicing neatly" and he
was strong - "heaving sods over his shoulder" (line 21). Perhaps the repetition of "old
man" (line 16) suggests not only Heaney's affection for his grandfather, but his father's
affection for him too: the love between them bonds the three generations.
 Heaney does not explain exactly why he has "no spade to follow men like them" (line 28).
Do you think he feels he is not physically strong enough for this type of work? Or that he is
no longer emotionally equipped for it, having broken the family tradition of working the
land? Does he fear his grandfather and father might not approve of his having left the land?
How does the language of the poem work to convey its meaning? Ask yourself what
kind of language the poet uses - for example, is it formal or colloquial, simple or
complex? Consider the sound the words make, and any imagery the poet creates with
them.

The language of the poem

Mare blobs on the meadow

 The poem is deceptively simple. The title is simple, the vocabulary is simple, and there is a
lot of repetition. For example, lines 1 and 3 both begin with "I love to see", and line 11
begins with "I love..." Words like "clear" and "bright" are also repeated.
Simple words of dialect ("Mare" and "flags") are used, rather than their more formal names. The
simplicity of the language perhaps reflects the simplicity of the subject: simple language is used
to convey simple pleasures.
 There is no formal punctuation - which in the early 19th century was not only unusual, but
unheard of! (To make the sonnet easy to read despite the lack of punctuation, most phrases
finish at the end of a line.) This too contributes to the simple feel of the poem, and suggests
a freedom and lack of constraint. We also get an idea of the poet's passionate
breathlessness: it is as if he is so desperate to pour out his love he cannot pause.
 The poem appeals to our senses. We see the view he sketches out for us, hear the reeds
rustling, feel the summer winds.
 As we read the poem, we get the impression that we are zooming in from a great distance,
looking first at clouds, then flowers and moor hens. We are finally given a close-up image of
water beetles on the surface of a lake. The poet is bringing us closer and closer to nature all
the time.