Study Questions and Answers

1. Define safety and computer security.

Safety refers to the protection of systems, individuals, and assets from accidental harm or
unintentional failures. It focuses on ensuring that a system operates without causing danger to
its users or surroundings.

Computer Security refers to the protection of computer systems, networks, and data from
unauthorized access, cyberattacks, and data breaches. It ensures the confidentiality, integrity,
and availability of digital information.

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2. Using real-life examples, what are the differences between safety and security?

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3. Explain this statement: "Safety describes a state where a system is protected from its
environment, whereas security is a condition where the environment of a system is protected
against failure."

This statement highlights the key distinction between safety and security in system protection:

Safety focuses on protecting a system from external factors (e.g., natural disasters, accidental
failures).
Example: A power plant is designed with cooling systems to prevent overheating (protecting the
system from its environment).

Security ensures that external threats cannot harm the system (e.g., hacking, sabotage,
cyberattacks).

Example: A bank’s security system ensures that hackers cannot manipulate transactions
(protecting the environment from security breaches).

In summary, safety ensures a system can function without being harmed, while security ensures
that the system cannot be exploited by malicious threats.

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4. Security is based on some independent issues. Identify these issues.

Security depends on several fundamental principles that ensure systems remain protected from
attacks. These include:

1. Authentication – Verifying the identity of users to ensure only authorized individuals can
access systems.
2. Access Control – Restricting users to only the information and resources they are authorized
to access.

3. Encryption – Converting data into unreadable formats to prevent unauthorized access.

4. Network Security – Protecting data during transmission over networks to prevent hacking
and eavesdropping.

5. Incident Response – Implementing procedures to detect, respond to, and recover from
security breaches.

6. Vulnerability Management – Identifying, assessing, and fixing security weaknesses before

they can be exploited.

7. Risk Assessment – Evaluating potential security threats and implementing preventive

measures.

8. Security Policies – Establishing rules and guidelines to enforce cybersecurity best practices.
These independent issues work together to create a comprehensive security system that
protects against cyber threats, unauthorized access, and data breaches.

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Study Questions and Answers

1. What is confidentiality?

Confidentiality is the principle of restricting access to information so that only authorized

individuals can view or use it. It ensures that sensitive data remains private and protected from
unauthorized access, leaks, or cyberattacks.

Examples of confidentiality measures:

Encryption – Scrambles data so only authorized users can read it.

Access Control – Limits user access based on permissions.

Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA) – Requires additional verification before granting access.

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2. What are the primary duties of a detection mechanism?

Detection mechanisms are security systems designed to identify and alert users about potential
threats or breaches.

Primary duties include:

1. Monitoring – Continuously observing system activities for suspicious behavior.

2. Threat Identification – Detecting unauthorized access, malware, or anomalies.

3. Intrusion Detection – Notifying administrators about potential cyberattacks.

4. Log Analysis – Keeping records of system activities for forensic investigations.

5. Generating Alerts – Sending notifications when security violations occur.

Examples:
Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) – Detects unauthorized access attempts.

Antivirus Software – Identifies and removes malware.

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3. Differentiate data integrity from origin integrity.

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4. How can integrity be ensured?

Integrity ensures that data remains accurate, consistent, and unaltered during storage or
transmission.

Methods to ensure integrity:

1. Checksums and Hashing – Generate unique codes to verify data integrity.

2. Digital Signatures – Ensure that documents or messages are authentic and untampered.
3. Access Controls – Restrict modification rights to authorized users only.

4. Audit Logs – Maintain records of all system changes to detect unauthorized modifications.

5. Data Validation – Implement input validation checks to prevent corruption.

Example:

When downloading a software update, a checksum ensures that no malicious changes have
been made to the file.

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5. When can the availability of a computer system or facility be in danger?

Availability refers to ensuring that a system and its resources are accessible when needed.

Threats to availability:

Denial-of-Service (DoS) Attacks – Overloading a system to prevent legitimate access.

Hardware Failures – Malfunctioning servers or storage devices.

Power Outages – Electrical failures disrupting operations.

Software Bugs – System crashes due to unpatched vulnerabilities.

Ransomware Attacks – Malware encrypting critical data, making it inaccessible.

Example:

A banking website going offline during a cyberattack disrupts customer transactions.

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6. Explain the concepts of prevention mechanisms and detection mechanisms.

Key Differences:

Prevention focuses on stopping threats, while detection focuses on identifying ongoing threats.

Example: A firewall prevents hackers from entering a network, while an IDS detects an intruder
who bypassed security.
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Study Questions and Answers

1. What is a system?

A system is a collection of interrelated components that work together to achieve a specific

goal. It follows a structured process where inputs are processed to produce outputs.

Examples of Systems:

Computer Systems – Hardware and software components working together to process data.

Security Systems – Measures such as firewalls, encryption, and authentication to protect assets.

Bureaucratic Systems – Administrative procedures that manage organizations.

Electrical Systems – Networks that generate and distribute electricity.

Plumbing Systems – Piping networks that control the flow of water in buildings.
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2. Explain the meaning of this statement: “Our increasing use of systems (computer systems,
security systems, bureaucratic systems, quality control systems, electrical systems, plumbing
systems) is an embracement of presumed rigour.”

This statement suggests that as society relies more on systems, we assume that these
systems are designed with rigor and precision to function reliably.

"Embracement" – Refers to the widespread adoption of structured systems in different fields.

"Presumed Rigour" – Assumes that these systems have been carefully designed, tested, and
implemented to prevent failures.

Example:

A computer security system is expected to provide strong protection against cyber threats.
However, if not properly designed, it can have vulnerabilities that attackers can exploit.

This statement highlights the importance of testing and maintaining systems to ensure they
truly provide the security and efficiency they promise.

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3. Identify types of faults that can be exploited by attackers.

Attackers exploit faults (weaknesses or errors) in systems to gain unauthorized access or

disrupt operations.

Types of Faults:

1. Software Bugs – Programming errors that create vulnerabilities (e.g., buffer overflow, SQL
injection).

2. Misconfigurations – Incorrect system settings that expose sensitive data (e.g., weak access
controls).

3. Design Flaws – Inherent weaknesses in system architecture (e.g., weak encryption).

4. Hardware Failures – Faulty components causing unexpected system behavior (e.g.,

unpatched firmware).

5. Human Errors – Mistakes made by users, such as using weak passwords or falling for
phishing attacks.
Example:

A poorly configured firewall allows unauthorized access, exposing a company’s data to

attackers.

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4. What is a threat?

A threat is any potential event, action, or entity that can cause harm to a system by exploiting its
vulnerabilities.

Types of Threats:

Cyber Threats – Hackers, malware, phishing, and ransomware.

Physical Threats – Theft, fire, or damage to hardware.

Human Threats – Insider attacks, social engineering, or unintentional errors.

Example:
A phishing attack where a hacker tricks an employee into revealing login credentials is a
cybersecurity threat.

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5. Explain the four broad classes of threats.

According to Shirey (1823), threats can be classified into four broad categories:

1. Disclosure Threats (Unauthorized Access):

Involves exposing confidential information to unauthorized parties.

Example: A hacker steals credit card details from an online store.

2. Deception Threats (Falsified Information):

Involves misleading users with false data or impersonation.

Example: A phishing email tricks employees into sharing login credentials.

3. Disruption Threats (Interference with Normal Operations):

Aims to prevent legitimate access to services.

Example: A DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) attack overwhelms a website, causing

downtime.

4. Usurpation Threats (Unauthorized Control):

Attackers gain control over a system to manipulate it for malicious purposes.

Example: A hacker installs malware to secretly control a victim’s computer.

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modifications!

Study Questions and Answers

1. Explain the two major approaches to security.

There are two major approaches to security:

a) Preventive Approach

Focuses on proactively stopping attacks before they occur.

Implements security measures such as firewalls, encryption, authentication, and access control.

The goal is to eliminate vulnerabilities before they can be exploited.

Example:

A firewall blocking unauthorized network traffic to prevent hacking attempts.

b) Reactive Approach

Focuses on detecting and responding to attacks after they occur.

Uses intrusion detection systems (IDS), security logs, and incident response teams.
Helps mitigate damage by taking corrective actions after a breach.

Example:

An antivirus program detecting and removing malware after an infection.

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2. Are there any advantages associated with the reactive approach? If there are, list them.

Yes, the reactive approach has several advantages:

1. Detection of Unknown Threats – Helps identify new and evolving cyberattacks.

2. Incident Response & Mitigation – Provides a plan to contain and resolve security breaches.

3. Forensic Analysis – Helps investigate attack patterns and root causes.

4. Adaptive Security Measures – Improves future preventive security based on past incidents.
5. Threat Intelligence Gathering – Collects data on attacks to enhance security policies.

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3. Explain the circular flow of preventive approaches.

The preventive approach follows a circular flow where security measures are continuously
improved to adapt to evolving threats.

Steps in the Circular Flow of Prevention:

1. Risk Assessment – Identify vulnerabilities and potential threats.

2. Implementation of Controls – Apply security measures (firewalls, encryption).

3. Monitoring & Auditing – Regularly check for security gaps.

4. Incident Analysis – Review past security breaches and weaknesses.

5. Security Improvement – Update and refine policies, protocols, and technologies.

After step 5, the cycle repeats itself to ensure continuous security enhancement.

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4. What are the constituent parts of reactive approaches?

The reactive approach consists of several key components:

1. Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) – Detects unauthorized access attempts.

2. Incident Response Teams (IRT) – Specialized teams that respond to cyberattacks.

3. Security Logs & Monitoring – Tracks system activities to identify suspicious behavior.

4. Forensic Investigation – Analyzes attack data to determine causes and impacts.

5. Threat Intelligence – Uses attack data to predict and prevent future threats.

6. Patch Management – Applies security updates to fix vulnerabilities after they have been
exploited.

Study Questions and Answers

1. Explain the two major approaches to security.

There are two major approaches to security:

a) Preventive Approach

Focuses on proactively stopping attacks before they occur.

Implements security measures such as firewalls, encryption, authentication, and access control.

The goal is to eliminate vulnerabilities before they can be exploited.

Example:

A firewall blocking unauthorized network traffic to prevent hacking attempts.

b) Reactive Approach

Focuses on detecting and responding to attacks after they occur.

Uses intrusion detection systems (IDS), security logs, and incident response teams.

Helps mitigate damage by taking corrective actions after a breach.

Example:

An antivirus program detecting and removing malware after an infection.

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2. Are there any advantages associated with the reactive approach? If there are, list them.

Yes, the reactive approach has several advantages:

1. Detection of Unknown Threats – Helps identify new and evolving cyberattacks.

2. Incident Response & Mitigation – Provides a plan to contain and resolve security breaches.

3. Forensic Analysis – Helps investigate attack patterns and root causes.

4. Adaptive Security Measures – Improves future preventive security based on past incidents.

5. Threat Intelligence Gathering – Collects data on attacks to enhance security policies.

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3. Explain the circular flow of preventive approaches.

The preventive approach follows a circular flow where security measures are continuously
improved to adapt to evolving threats.

Steps in the Circular Flow of Prevention:

1. Risk Assessment – Identify vulnerabilities and potential threats.

2. Implementation of Controls – Apply security measures (firewalls, encryption).

3. Monitoring & Auditing – Regularly check for security gaps.

4. Incident Analysis – Review past security breaches and weaknesses.

5. Security Improvement – Update and refine policies, protocols, and technologies.

After step 5, the cycle repeats itself to ensure continuous security enhancement.

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4. What are the constituent parts of reactive approaches?

The reactive approach consists of several key components:

1. Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) – Detects unauthorized access attempts.

2. Incident Response Teams (IRT) – Specialized teams that respond to cyberattacks.

3. Security Logs & Monitoring – Tracks system activities to identify suspicious behavior.

4. Forensic Investigation – Analyzes attack data to determine causes and impacts.

5. Threat Intelligence – Uses attack data to predict and prevent future threats.

6. Patch Management – Applies security updates to fix vulnerabilities after they have been
exploited.

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clarifications!
Study Questions and Answers

1. What are the main elements of the security process?

The security process consists of several elements that work together to protect systems,
networks, and data from threats.

Main Elements of the Security Process:

1. Risk Assessment – Identifies vulnerabilities and potential threats.

2. Preventive Measures – Implements security controls like firewalls, encryption, and access
control.

3. Detection Mechanisms – Uses intrusion detection systems (IDS) and security monitoring to
identify attacks.

4. Incident Response – Responds to security breaches to minimize damage.

5. Recovery and Mitigation – Restores systems and applies fixes to prevent future attacks.

6. Continuous Monitoring and Improvement – Regularly updates security strategies to address

evolving threats.

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2. Enumerate risk analysis and risk management procedures.

a) Risk Analysis Procedures

Risk analysis involves identifying potential security risks and evaluating their impact.

Steps in Risk Analysis:

1. Identify Assets – Determine critical systems, data, and resources.

2. Identify Threats and Vulnerabilities – Assess weaknesses that attackers could exploit.

3. Determine Risk Impact – Evaluate the potential consequences of a security breach.

4. Assess Likelihood of Attack – Estimate the probability of different threats occurring.

5. Prioritize Risks – Rank threats based on severity.

b) Risk Management Procedures

Risk management involves implementing security measures to reduce or eliminate risks.

Steps in Risk Management:

1. Risk Avoidance – Eliminating risks where possible (e.g., disabling unnecessary network ports).

2. Risk Reduction – Implementing security controls (e.g., encryption, multi-factor authentication).

3. Risk Transfer – Using cyber insurance or outsourcing security to third-party providers.

4. Risk Acceptance – Acknowledging and managing unavoidable risks through contingency

plans.

5. Monitoring and Review – Continuously reassessing risks and updating security policies.
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3. Why is it important to view security as a continuous process, rather than a product that can
be applied anywhere?

Security is not a one-time solution but an ongoing process because:

1. Evolving Threats – New cyberattacks emerge daily, requiring continuous updates.

2. Software and System Updates – Security patches must be applied to address vulnerabilities.

3. User Behavior Changes – Employees may adopt new technology or practices, introducing
new risks.

4. Compliance and Legal Requirements – Security regulations constantly change, requiring

continuous compliance.

5. Monitoring and Incident Response – Security breaches must be detected and mitigated in
real-time.
Example:

A company that installs firewalls but does not update them regularly remains vulnerable to new
hacking techniques.

By treating security as a continuous process, organizations can adapt and defend against ever-
changing cyber threats.

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.Study Questions and Answers

1. List and explain sources of threats.

Threats to security originate from different sources and can cause harm to systems, data, or
networks.

Sources of Threats:

1. Natural Threats – Environmental factors such as earthquakes, floods, and fires that can
damage IT infrastructure.

2. Human Threats – Caused by individuals, including hackers, employees, or criminals.

3. Technical Threats – Vulnerabilities in software, hardware, or networks that allow exploitation.

4. Physical Threats – Theft or destruction of physical devices, such as servers or workstations.

5. Supply Chain Threats – Risks from third-party vendors who may introduce security
weaknesses.

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2. Distinguish between intentional and unintentional threats.

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3. What are the types of intentional threats?

1. Hacking – Unauthorized access to computer systems.

2. Phishing – Fraudulent emails or websites tricking users into revealing credentials.

3. Malware Attacks – Viruses, worms, ransomware, or spyware designed to harm systems.

4. Denial-of-Service (DoS) Attacks – Overloading a network or website to make it unavailable.

5. Insider Threats – Employees or contractors misusing access for personal gain or sabotage.

6. Data Theft – Stealing sensitive information for financial or competitive advantage.

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4. Give examples of unintentional threats.

1. Accidental Data Deletion – An employee mistakenly deletes important files.

2. Weak Passwords – Users creating easy-to-guess passwords, making accounts vulnerable.

3. Software Bugs – Errors in programming that create security vulnerabilities.

4. Misconfiguration of Systems – Setting up firewalls or databases incorrectly, leaving them

open to attacks.

5. Lost or Stolen Devices – A misplaced laptop containing sensitive data.

6. Social Engineering Mistakes – An employee unknowingly sharing login details over the phone.

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These answers fully address the study questions. Let me know if you need further explanations!

Study Questions and Answers

1. List and explain sources of threats.

Threats to security originate from different sources and can cause harm to systems, data, or
networks.

Sources of Threats:

1. Natural Threats – Environmental factors such as earthquakes, floods, and fires that can
damage IT infrastructure.

2. Human Threats – Caused by individuals, including hackers, employees, or criminals.

3. Technical Threats – Vulnerabilities in software, hardware, or networks that allow exploitation.

4. Physical Threats – Theft or destruction of physical devices, such as servers or workstations.

5. Supply Chain Threats – Risks from third-party vendors who may introduce security
weaknesses.
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2. Distinguish between intentional and unintentional threats.

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3. What are the types of intentional threats?

1. Hacking – Unauthorized access to computer systems.

2. Phishing – Fraudulent emails or websites tricking users into revealing credentials.

3. Malware Attacks – Viruses, worms, ransomware, or spyware designed to harm systems.

4. Denial-of-Service (DoS) Attacks – Overloading a network or website to make it unavailable.

5. Insider Threats – Employees or contractors misusing access for personal gain or sabotage.

6. Data Theft – Stealing sensitive information for financial or competitive advantage.

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4. Give examples of unintentional threats.

1. Accidental Data Deletion – An employee mistakenly deletes important files.

2. Weak Passwords – Users creating easy-to-guess passwords, making accounts vulnerable.

3. Software Bugs – Errors in programming that create security vulnerabilities.

4. Misconfiguration of Systems – Setting up firewalls or databases incorrectly, leaving them

open to attacks.

5. Lost or Stolen Devices – A misplaced laptop containing sensitive data.

6. Social Engineering Mistakes – An employee unknowingly sharing login details over the phone.
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Study Questions and Answers

1. What do you understand by a computer security model?

A computer security model is a framework that defines rules, policies, and procedures for
protecting computer systems from threats. It specifies how access control, confidentiality, and
integrity are maintained within an information system.

Purpose of Security Models:

Ensure data confidentiality, integrity, and availability.

Define user roles and permissions.

Prevent unauthorized access and modifications.

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2. Enumerate and describe four security models required in system design.

1. Bell-LaPadula Model (BLP) – Confidentiality Model

Focuses on confidentiality by restricting data access based on security levels.

Used in military and government systems.

Rules:

No Read Up (Simple Security Property) – A lower-level user cannot read higher-level data.

No Write Down (*-Property) – A higher-level user cannot write to a lower security level.

2. Biba Model – Integrity Model

Ensures data integrity by preventing unauthorized modifications.

Used in financial and medical systems where accuracy is critical.

Rules:

No Read Down – A higher-integrity user cannot read lower-integrity data.

No Write Up – A lower-integrity user cannot modify higher-integrity data.

3. Clark-Wilson Model – Commercial Integrity Model

Enforces data integrity through transaction controls.

Used in banks, accounting systems, and business environments.

Requires separation of duties to prevent fraud.

4. Brewer-Nash Model (Chinese Wall Model) – Conflict of Interest Model

Prevents conflicts of interest by restricting access based on organizational policies.

Used in financial and consulting firms.

Ensures users cannot access competing company data.

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3. State the defining properties of the Biba Model.

The Biba Model enforces data integrity using three main properties:

1. Simple Integrity Property (No Read Down) – Higher-level users cannot read lower-integrity
data.

2. Star Integrity Property (No Write Up) – Lower-level users cannot modify higher-integrity data.

3. Invocation Property – Users cannot execute higher-privileged programs if they have lower
integrity.

Example:
A financial auditor (high integrity) cannot modify records created by an accountant (low
integrity).

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4. What are the properties that define the Bell-LaPadula Model?

The Bell-LaPadula (BLP) Model enforces data confidentiality using three properties:

1. Simple Security Property (No Read Up) – A subject cannot read data at a higher security level.

2. Star Property (No Write Down) – A subject cannot write data to a lower security level.

3. Discretionary Security Property – Access permissions are assigned using an access matrix.

Example:

A classified military document (Top Secret) cannot be read by a lower-level officer (Secret
clearance).
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5. Illustrate how security models are used in the design of an Operating System.

Security models help in OS design by enforcing access control, authentication, and data
protection.

Example:

Windows and Linux use access control lists (ACLs) to implement Bell-LaPadula’s confidentiality
model.

MacOS uses sandboxing to apply the Biba integrity model, restricting app permissions.

Banking transaction systems use Clark-Wilson’s well-formed transaction rules to ensure

financial integrity.

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6. State Clark-Wilson Model Rules.

The Clark-Wilson Model ensures data integrity using the following rules:
1. Well-Formed Transactions – Data modifications must follow defined rules.

2. Separation of Duties – No single user should have full control over critical processes.

3. Access Control Triple (Subject, Program, Object) – Users must use authorized programs to
modify data.

4. Audit Trails – Every transaction must be logged for accountability.

Example:

In banking systems, an employee cannot approve their own financial transactions, ensuring
separation of duties.

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Study Questions and Answers

1. State two fundamental cryptographic principles.

Cryptography relies on two key principles to secure information:

1. Confusion – Ensures that the relationship between the plaintext and ciphertext is complex,
making it difficult for attackers to predict the encryption pattern.

Example: Substitution ciphers, where letters are replaced with different symbols or characters.

2. Diffusion – Ensures that changes in the plaintext affect multiple parts of the ciphertext,
making it harder to determine the original message.

Example: A single letter change in plaintext should result in multiple changes in ciphertext using
block ciphers like AES.

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2. Encryption methods have historically been divided into two categories. Identify and discuss
these categories using real examples.

Encryption is classified into:

a) Symmetric Encryption (Secret Key Encryption)

Uses one key for both encryption and decryption.

It is fast and efficient, but sharing the secret key securely is a challenge.

Example:

Advanced Encryption Standard (AES): Used in banking transactions.

Data Encryption Standard (DES): Older encryption used in early network security.

b) Asymmetric Encryption (Public Key Encryption)

Uses two keys:

Public Key (for encryption).

Private Key (for decryption).

It is more secure but computationally slower than symmetric encryption.

Example:

RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman): Used in email encryption and digital signatures.

Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC): Used in modern secure messaging apps.

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3. What is cryptography?

Cryptography is the science of securing information by converting plaintext into unreadable

ciphertext using mathematical algorithms. It ensures:

Confidentiality – Prevents unauthorized access to information.

Integrity – Ensures data is not altered during transmission.

Authentication – Verifies the sender’s identity.

Example:

When you enter your password on a website, it is hashed using cryptographic techniques before
storage to prevent attackers from viewing the original password.

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4. Using transposition cipher, convert the following plaintext to ciphertext:

Plaintext:

"pleasedonottransferthesumofonehundredmillionnairaintotheaccountofthesupplieraspreviously
agreed"

Solution (Transposition Cipher – Columnar Transposition)

Step 1: Arrange the text in a grid (e.g., 8 columns):

pleasedo

nottrans

ferthesu

mofonehu

ndredmil

lionnair
aintothe

accounto

fthesupp

lieraspr

eviously

agreed

Step 2: Read column-wise to get the ciphertext:

Ciphertext:

pnmfnalilaol ldoitcogtn

ltfoeiaimvo ienneoenuee

eteoncnrtra snmdrutvsel

aetsftdouhi essoroipoya

srrhooeimnp esioiurpgls

ednsnhltoln edreusliaed

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