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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
COMPUTER SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Alvina for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Converting Denary to Binary

1. Data Representation
Take the value and successively divide it by 2, creating a
table like follows:
1.1. Number Systems
2 142
Binary System 2
2
71
35
Remainder:
Remainder:
0
1
2 17 Remainder: 1
Base 2 number system 2
2
8
4
Remainder:
Remainder:
1
0
It has two possible values only (0 and 1) 2 2 Remainder: 0
0 represents OFF, and 1 represents ON 2 1
0
Remainder:
Remainder:
0
1
A point to be noted is that the most left bit is called the
MSB (Most Significant Bit) Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is
divided by the previous value of the current number and
Denary System 1 is added to the remainder column for that specific
number
Base 10 number system When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from
Has values from 0 to 9 bottom to top giving us the binary value ( as in this case,
it is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )
Hexadecimal (aka Hex)
Base 16 number system
Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
Have values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F Separate each value from each other and convert them
A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15, to denary
which is F Each separate denary value to be converted to binary
Binary Value Hexadecimal Value Denary Value All the binary values to be merged together
0000 0 0 e.g.
0001 1 1
0010 2 2
0011 3 3 Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D
0100 4 4 Denary : 2 1 15 13
0101 5 5
0110 6 6 Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101
0111 7 7
1000 8 8
1001 9 9 Final Answer: 0010000111111101
1010 A 10
1011 B 11
1100 C 12 Converting Binary to Hexadecimal
1101 D 13
1110 E 14
1111 F 15
Divide the binary value into groups of 4 starting from the
right. If at the end, the last division is less than 4, add 0s
until it reaches 4
1.2. Number Conversions For each group, find the denary value as shown above,
and then convert each denary value to its corresponding
Converting Binary to Denary hexadecimal value (if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is
A, 11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14 is E and 15 is F).
Place the binary value in columns of 2 raised to the After conversion, just put all the hexadecimal values in
power of the number of values from the right starting
order to get the final answer
from 0. e.g. For binary value 11101110, place it in a table
like this:
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

As can be seen it starts from 1 and then goes to 128 from

left to right
Now values with 1 are to be added together, giving the
final answer, as for the example, it is 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 +
4 + 2 = 238

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Carry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 Byte 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
Byte 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101 OVERFLOW
Solution 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 1101

Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values,
After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13
we use the rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit
(overflows), we put the value in brackets, denoting it is
Denary to Hexadecimal: 21FD overflow.
iii. The solution would now be (1) 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
Converting Hexadecimal to Denary
Logical Shifts
Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then
convert the final answer to denary The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left
or the right
Converting Denary to Hexadecimal When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit
being emptied is going to become 0
Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to
hexadecimal as explained above Explanation with Example
1.3. Binary Calculations Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left:
1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically
Binary values are not added the way denary values are shifted is removed ( in this case, one at the LHS is
added, as when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write two removed) - ==(if it were two places, 2 bits would
because it doesn’t exist in binary. have been removed)==
2. Every bit is moved in given places to the given
Points to Note: direction ( every bit is moved one place to the left
in this case, and the leftover bit in the right is
0+0=0 marked 0, so 10101010 would become 01010100)
1+0/0+1=1
1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry) Two’s Complement (Binary Numbers)
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry)
Two’s complement is a method used to represent
Overflow negative values in binary. Here, the MSB ( Most
Significant Bit) is replaced from 128 to -128; thus, the
When adding two values, if the solution exceeds the limit range of values in a two’s complement byte is -128 to 127
of given values, e.g., the solution has 9 bits, but the
question had 8 bits per value, the 9th bit (most left bit) is Converting Binary Values to Two’s Complement
called overflow.
This indicates that the memory doesn’t have enough Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first one
space to store the answer to the addition done in the from the right; e.g., 1101100 would have the first one at
previous part. the third position from the right.
Now, switch every value to the left of the first one
Steps to add Two Values (With Example) located above (not switching the one), e.g., the value in
our example becomes 0010100, which is the two’s
The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 complement of itself.
0
1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the Converting negative values to two complement
left-hand side to match them).
e.g., 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 Find the binary equivalent of the value ignoring the - sign
2. Add the values as follows with the points given Convert the binary value to two’s complement
above Make the MSB 1, if not already

Converting Two’s Complement Value to Denary:

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We do it the same way as a normal value is converted 0 is at 48

from binary to denary; we only replace 128 with -12,8
A is at 65
e.g., for 1011101,0 we do the:
a is at 97
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 ASCII uses one byte to store the value
When the ASCII value of a character is converted to
-128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70 binary, it can be seen that the sixth-bit changes from 1 to
0 when going from lowercase to uppercase of a
1.4. Use of the Hexadecimal System character, and the rest remains the same. e.g.

Examples:
Defining colours in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses (a number that
uniquely identifies a device on a network) Unicode
Assembly languages and machine code
Memory Dumps ASCII does not contain all of the international languages
Debugging (method to find errors in a program) thus, Unicode is used to solve this problem
Display error codes (numbers refer to the memory The first 128 values are the same as ASCII.
location of the error) Unicode supports up to four bytes per character, storing
IP (Internet Protocol) addresses multiple languages and more data.
To represent text in binary, a computer uses a
Memory Dumps character set, a collection of characters and the
corresponding binary codes that represent them.
Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or
when trying to trace errors.
Sound
Memory dump is when the memory contents are output
to a printer or monitor. Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital
Assembly code and machine code (low-level languages) form, it is sampled
The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals
Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code where the amplitude is measured. However, it cannot be
Using hexadecimal makes writing code easier, faster, and measured precisely, so approximate values are stored
less error-prone than binary.
Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in How is Sound Recorded
values and is prone to errors.
The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at
set time intervals
1.5. Text, Sound and Images The value is converted to digital form
Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a
ASCII series of binary digits
A series of readings gives an approximate representation
The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit
of the sound wave
code that represents the letters, numbers and characters
found on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control Sampling Resolution:
codes
Uppercase and lowercase characters have different ASCII
values
Every subsequent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1.
e.g. “a” is 97 in ASCII, “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1)
Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as
follows:

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The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling

resolution (aka bit depth) 1.6. Measurement of the Size of
Increasing the sampling resolution increases the Computer Memories
accuracy of the sampled sound as more detail is stored
about the amplitude of the sound. A binary digit is referred to as a BIT
Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the 8 bits is a byte
memory usage of the file as more bits are being used to 4 bits is a nibble
store the data. Byte is used to measure memory size

Sampling Rate IECB System (Most Common)

The sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken Name of memory size No. of Bytes Equivalent Denary Value
1 kibibyte (1KiB) 210 1 024 bytes
per second, which is measured in Hertz (Hz) 1 mebibyte (1MiB) 220 1 048 576 bytes
A higher sampling rate would allow more accurate sound 1 gibibyte (1GiB) 230 1 073 741 824 bytes
as fewer estimations will be done between samples. 1 tebibyte (1TiB) 240 1 099 511 627 776 bytes
1 pebibyte (1PiB) 250 1 125 899 906 842 624 bytes

Images
Conventional System
Bitmap Images Name of memory size No. of Bytes Equivalent Denary Value
1 kilobyte (1KB) 103 1 000 bytes
Bitmap images are made up of pixels 1 megabyte (1MB) 106 1 000 000 bytes
A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of 1 gigabyte (1GB) 109 1 000 000 000 bytes
1 terabyte (1TB) 1012 1 000 000 000 000 bytes
binary numbers 1 petabyte (1PB) 1015 1 000 000 000 000 000 bytes

Colour Depth Calculation of File Size

The number of bits representing each colour is called the The file size of an image is calculated as image resolution
colour depth. (in pixels) × colour depth (in bits)
An 8-bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one The size of a mono sound file is calculated as sample rate
of 256 colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256) (in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in
A 1-bit colour depth means each pixel can store one seconds). (For a stereo sound file, you would then
colour (because 2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done multiply the result by two.)
as the bit can either be 0 or 1, with 0 being white and 1
being black)
Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file 1.7. File Types
when storing an image.
Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)
Image Resolution
Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that
make up an image; for example, an image could contain
4096 × 3072 pixels.
Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail
than those with a higher resolution.
When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having
a low amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known
as being pixelated.
High-resolution images use high amounts of memory as
compared to low-resolution ones.

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Storage of music files JPEG is a file format used to reduce photographic file
A communications protocol that allows electronic sizes
musical instruments to interact with each other Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of
Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes pixels per centimetre
Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous) When a photographic file undergoes compression, file
Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes: size is reduced
The first byte is the status byte – which informs the JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor
MIDI device what function to perform between 5 and 15
Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel
(operates on 16 different channels) 1.8. Lossless and Lossy File
Examples of MIDI commands:
Note on/off: indicates that a key has been pressed Compression
Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed
(loudness of music) Lossless File Compression
It needs a lot of memory storage
All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed
MP3 again when the file is uncompressed.
Important for files where the loss of data would be
It uses technology known as Audio Compression to disastrous (spreadsheet)
convert music and other sounds into an MP3 file format An algorithm is used to compress data
This compression reduces the normal file size by 90% No data is lost
Done using file compression algorithms, which use Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes
Perceptual Music Shaping
Removes sounds that the human ear cannot hear Run-Length Encoding
properly
Certain sounds are removed without affecting the It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data
quality, too much (e.g. repeated colours in an image)
CD files are converted using File Compression Software A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first
Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the value represents the number of identical data items (e.g.
compression algorithm characters), and the second value represents the code of
the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard
MP4
character), e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’ becomes “05 97 04
This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather 98 02 99 05 100.”
than just sound RLE is only effective where there is a long run of
Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored repeated units/bits
Videos could be streamed without losing any real One difficulty is that RLE compression isn't perfect for
discernible quality strings like "cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this; e.g.,
255 can be made as the flag. Now 255 will be put before
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) every repeating value, e.g. our previous example
becomes 255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05 100
where 255 now indicates that the next character/set of
characters is approaching

Lossy File Compression

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The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g.
data bits like in MP3 and JPEG formats. computer to printer)
It is impossible to get the original file back once it is Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but
compressed not at the same time (e.g., walkie-talkie)
Reduces file quality Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions
In this, the image's resolution and colour depth are simultaneously (e.g. broadband connection on the phone
reduced. line)
Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a
2. Data Transmission time over a single wire
Parallel data transmission is when data of several bits (1
byte) are sent down several wires at the same time.
2.1. Types and Methods of Data Comparison of Serial and Parallel Data
Transmission Transmission
Data Packets Serial Parallel
Better for longer distances (Telephone Lines) Better for short distances (Internal circuits)
Cheaper Option Expensive (More hardware required)
Packet Structure - Used when the size of data transmitted is small Used when speed is necessary
Header Slower Option Faster than Serial
Easier to synchronise as there's only one data Difficult to synchronise due to skew between
Contains the IP address of the sender and the stream. bits.
receiver
The sequence number of the packet 2.2. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
Size of the packet
Payload USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method
Contains the actual data USB consists of:
Trailer Four-wire shielded cable
Includes a method of identifying the end of the Two wires are used for power and earth
packet Two wires are used in data transmission
Error-Checking methods
Advantages Disadvantages
Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where Automatically detected Transmission rate is less than 120 MB/sec
the data is broken into multiple packets. Packets are Only fit one way, prevents incorrect connections Maximum cable length is about 5 metres
Different data transmission rates
then sent independently from start to end and Backwards compatible
reassembled at the receiver’s computer. Industry-standard

2.3. Methods of Error Detection

Advantages Disadvantages
There is no need to create a single line of Packets may be lost
communication
Possible to overcome failed or busy nodes More prone to errors in real-time streaming
High data transmission speed Delay at the receiver while the packets are
being re-ordered Parity Checks
Easy to expand package usage
It uses the number of 1-bits in a byte
Data Transmission Type Types -
Even - Even number of 1-bits
Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits
Example (Even Parity) -
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

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The LMB (Left-Most Bit) is the parity bit. As the number Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the
of 1s is even, the parity bit would be set to even. data (ex-codes). The check digit would be the last digit of
Limitations with Parity Checks the code.
Two bits may change during transmission; therefore These are used to identify mistyping errors such as -
error is not found 6372 typed as 6379
Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors, 8432 typed as 842
the bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified
Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs)
Parity Blocks
Uses acknowledgements and timeouts to make sure the
To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks user received the data
would be used. The receiver would check the data for any errors; if none
are found, a positive acknowledgement is sent to the
sender. However, if errors are found, a negative
acknowledgement will be sent, and the data will be sent
again.
The sender uses timeouts to wait for a pre-determined
amount for the acknowledgement.
If no acknowledgements are received after the timeout,
the data will be sent again to the receiver.

2.4. Encryption
Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows
and columns Encryption is a process of turning the data into an
unreadable form so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and
Checksum other attackers.

Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender Plaintext and Ciphertext
would calculate the checksum value using a specific
algorithm. Plaintext is the original data that is being sent
Once the data has been sent, The receiver would Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption
calculate the checksum again with the same set of data
and the same algorithm used before.
Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption
The receiver would then compare the value received and Symmetric Encryption:
the newly calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A It uses an encryption key for the encryption process;
request is made to re-send the data. the same key is used for encrypting and decrypting
the data.
Echo Check Asymmetric Encryption:
Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is
Once the data has been sent, The receiver will send the
data back to the sender for verification. available to everyone, whereas the private key is only
The sender would compare the received and original available to the user.
data for errors. The receiver would have the private key, and they
The only downside is that we wouldn’t know if the error would send the public key to the sender. The sender
can encrypt the message with the public key, and the
occurred when sending the data or sending the data
back for verification. data can be decrypted using the private key.

Check Digits 3. Hardware

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1. PC contains the address of the next instruction to be

3.1. Computer Architecture & Von fetched
Neumann Architecture 2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus
3. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR
The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a temporarily
microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern 4. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR
computer systems 5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing to
the next instruction to be fetched
The CPU consists of the following architecture: 6. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed
Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and
Stored Program Concept
Logic Unit (ALU)
Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of Instructions are stored in the main memory
the memory, processor and input/output devices Instructions are fetched, decoded, and executed by
Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like the processor
calculations Programs can be moved to and from the main memory
System Clock: The system clock is used to produce
timing signals on the control bus Memory Concept
Buses: Carry data through components. The following are its
A computer’s memory is divided into partitions: Each
types.
partition consists of an address and its contents, e.g.
Address bus – unidirectional MEMORY LOCATION CONTENT
Data Bus – bi-directional 10101010 01010110
Control Bus – bi-directional
Instruction Set:
Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are to An instruction set is a list of all the commands that a CPU
be processed, which are fetched by the CPU can process, and the commands are machine code
The following registers also exist in the architecture:
3.2. Cores, Cache and Internal Clock
REGISTER ABBREVIATION FUNCTION
Stores the instruction the CPU is currently decoding
CIR Current instruction register or executing System’s Clock
MAR Memory address register Stores the Address of the instruction, copy it, and
sends it to MDR
MDR Memory data register
Stores the Data from the address received from the
MAR and sends data to CIR
The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all
PC Program counter Stores the address of the next instruction to be computer operations. By increasing the clock speed, the
fetched from memory
ACC Accumulator During calculations, data is temporarily held in it
computer's processing speed also increases. This doesn’t
mean that the computer's performance is increased,
however.

Overclocking
Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed
for.
It leads to multiple issues.

Operations become unsynchronised - (the computer

would frequently crash and become unstable)
can lead to serious overheating of the CPU
The Fetch-Execute Cycle Length of Data Buses
The wider the data buses, the better the performance of
the computer

Cache
Cache memory is located within the CPU itself

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-- allows faster access to the CPU
-- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to 3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three-
be accessed faster, which improves CPU performance dimensional image
The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers,
performance magnetic, white light)
The scanned images can be used in Computer-Aided
Cores Design (CAD) or in a 3D printer to produce a working
model
The more cores in the CPU, the better and faster the
performance Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:

But if any number of cores are used, it could slow down Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which
the system performance as the communication between represent the passport pages
each core increases, and so do the data cables between Text can be stored in ASCII format
each. Which in turn reduces the potential system The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and
performance. stored as jpeg image
You might have heard about quad and dual cores, not The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital
septa or octa cores. camera and compared to using face recognition software
Key parts of the face are compared (distance between
eyes, width of nose)
3.3. Input Devices
Barcode readers/scanners
Two-dimensional Scanners:
A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of
Used to input hard-copy documents varying thicknesses
The image is converted into an electronic form, which The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique
can be stored in the computer series of lines
The document is placed on a glass panel The left and right-hand sides of the barcode are separate
A bright light illuminates the document using guard bars
A scan head moves across the document until the Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction
whole page is scanned. An image of the document is The barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
produced and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors Light is reflected off the barcode; dark areas reflect
The lens focuses on the document image little light, which allows the bars to be read
The focused image now falls onto a charge-coupled Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
device (CCD), which consists of several integrated The pattern is generated, which is converted to digital
circuits
The software produces a digital image in the Quick Response (QR) Codes
electronic form Another type of barcode is the QR codes
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which
Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light
converts scanned documents into a text file format
background
If the original document was a photo/image, then the
Can hold more storage (7000 digits)
scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG Advantages of QR codes:
Three-dimensional Scanners No need for the user to write down the website
address
QR codes can store website addresses

Digital Cameras

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It is controlled by a microprocessor that adjusts the Capacitive (medium cost tech)

shutter speed, focuses the image, etc. Made up of many layers of glass
Photo is captured when light passes through the lens Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers
onto a light sensitive cell When the top layer of glass is touched, electric
The cell is made up of pixels current changes
The number of pixels determines the size of the file Co-ordinates where the screen was touched are
determined by an on-board microprocessor
Keyboards Infra-red heat (expensive)
Connected to a computer with a USB connection or by Use glass as the screen material
wireless connection Needs a warm object to carry an input operation
Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a Infra-red optical (expensive)
Uses glass as screen material
digital signal
Slow method Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
Prone to errors Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is
touched
Pointing devices Resistive (inexpensive)
The upper layer of polyester, the bottom layer of
Mouse/trackball glass
Traditional mechanical ball, connected by USB port When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and
Modern type: red LEDs to detect movement bottom layer complete a circuit
Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a
Microphones microprocessor to determine where the screen was
Used to input sound to a computer touched
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm Sensors
vibrates, producing an electric signal
The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into
digital values and stored in a computer
Voice recognition: voice is detected and converted into
digital

Touchscreens

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Devices that read or measure physical properties The light sensor sends data to the ADC
Data needs to be converted to digital The data is digitised and sent to the microprocessor
Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) converts physical Microprocessor samples data every minute
values into digital If data from sensor < value stored in memory:
Sensors and their purposes: Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp
Acoustic - These sensors act like a microphone that Lamp switched on
converts sound to electric pulses.
Accelerometer - These sensors measure an object's 3.4. Output Devices
acceleration or deceleration and motion.
Flow - This sensor measures the flow of liquid or gas. Inkjet Printers
Gas - These sensors measure the amount/level of any
gas in the environment. Used to print one-off pictures and documents
Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in Data from the document sent to the printer driver
the air or any sample. The printer driver ensures data is in the correct format
Infra-red (active) - This IR sensor uses an invisible Check made by printer driver that the chosen printer is
infrared beam. When the beam is broken/disturbed, available
it changes the amount of infrared light reaching the Data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary
detector. memory (printer buffer)
Infra-red (passive) - These sensors detect the heat A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper is
emitted by any object. available in the paper tray
Level - This sensor detects the solids, liquids, or gas The print head moves across paper printing text/image,
level. four ink colours sprayed in the exact amount
Light - These devices use light-sensitive cells that Paper is advanced, so the next line is printed
generate electric current based on light brightness. Repeated until the buffer is empty
Magnetic field - This sensor detects the change in Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the
magnetic field. processor (request for more data to be sent)
Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water
content wherever this sensor has been installed. Laser Printers
pH - This measures the acidity or alkalinity. Used to print flyers, high quality
Pressure - This sensor measures the pressure applied Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to
Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects produce text and images
around the sensor Prints the whole page in one go
Temperature - These sensors measure the
temperature of the environment.
(Note: You do not need to know the working principle of
the sensor. But have an idea of their purposes.)

Control of Street Lighting­­

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1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet) The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid
2. The printing drum is given a positive charge; as the Crystal Display (LCD); these tiny diodes are grouped in
drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it; threes as pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light)
removing the positive charge leaves negatively LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED)
charged areas which match the text/image because:
3. The drum is then coated with positively charged LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately
toner; it only sticks to negatively charged parts of the LEDs sharpen image (higher resolution), and CCFL
drum has a yellow tint
4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum LEDs improve the colour image
5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL
produce a copy of the page LEDs consume very little power
6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL
rollers); heat melts the ink so it is permanent CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen,
7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from which supplies the light source
the drum, ready to print on the next page
Light Projectors:
3D Printers
Two common types of light projectors:
Used for models of cars Digital Light Projector (DLP)
Produce solid objects that work LCD Projector
Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic Projectors are used to project computer output onto
powder larger screens/interactive whiteboards
A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD)
Digital Light Projectors (DLP)
2D and 3D Cutters
Uses millions of micromirrors
3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction the number of micromirrors and the way they are
3D laser cutters can cut glass, crystal, metal, wood arranged on the DLP chip determines the resolution of
the image
Actuators When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they
are on
The actuators convert electrical signals to mechanical
processes. When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source,
Used in many control applications involving sensors and they are off
devices (ADC and DAC) This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
A bright white light source passes through a colour filter
Loudspeakers/Headphones on its way to the DLP chip
White light splits into primary colours
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a
DAC, then through an amplifier, and then emerges from LCD Projectors
the loudspeaker
Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the
speaker at different frequencies
LCD and LED Monitors

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Older technology than DLP RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and
A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb access data that is actively being used or processed by
This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic- the user immediately.
coated mirrors; these reflect the light at different Features of RAM
wavelengths Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is
When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light turned off)
has wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue Used to store; data, files
These three different lights pass through three LCD It can be written to or read from, and the contents of
screens; these screens show the image to be projected the memory can be changed
as millions of pixels in grayscale The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer
When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens, will operate
a red, green and blue version of the grey image emerges RAM never runs out of memory and continues to run
Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto slow
the screen As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the
continually hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with
new data
RAM is of two types:

DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM)

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer

Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer

3.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Virtual memory
Primary vs. Secondary Storage When RAM runs out of memory, there is a problem with
The CPU directly accesses primary storage memory management; thus, the system has a high
RAM, ROM, and cache memory are some examples of chance of crashing. This is why virtual memory comes
primary storage into the picture.
The CPU does not directly access secondary storage The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these
HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some storages are discussed below)
examples of secondary storage

Primary Memory:
Random Access Memory (RAM)

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There are no moving parts, and all data is received at the

same time (not like HDD)
Store data by controlling the movement of electrons
within NAND chips, as 1s and 0s
Non-volatile rewritable memory
Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD:
More reliable (no moving parts)
Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops)
Lower power consumption
Run much cooler than HDDs
Very thin
You may be expected to draw a diagram like the above. Data access is faster than HDD
The main advantages of virtual memory are Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)
They can be larger than the physical memory
provided in the RAM. Off-Line Storage:
Avoids the need to install/upgrade RAM, as it could CD/DVD Disks
be expensive
Laser (red) light is used to read and write data on the
The system wastes no storage on unwanted/unused surface of the disk.
data.
A thin layer of metal alloy is used to store data.
Read Only Memory (ROM) Both systems use a single spiral track that runs from the
centre of the disk to the edge
Features of ROM DVD uses Dual-Layering, which increases the storage
Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain capacity (two individual recording layers)
even when ROM is turned off)
Used to store start-up instructions (basic Blu-ray Disks
input/output systems)
Uses a blue laser to carry out read-and-write operations
Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read and
The wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD
cannot be changed
(stores up to five times more data than DVD)
Secondary Storage: Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent
Hard Disk Drives (HDD) piracy and copyright infringement)
Used as backup systems
Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface
of the disks (platter) USB Flash Memories
A number of read/write heads can access all of the
Very small, lightweight, and suitable for transferring files
surfaces of the disk Small back-up devices for photo, music
Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to
Solid state, so needs to be treated with care
store the data
Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks Cloud Storage:
HDD has very slow data access compared to RAM
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is
Solid-State Drive (SSD) stored on remote servers
The same data is stored on more than one server in case
of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data
at any time. This is known as data redundancy.

The following are its types:

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Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded
Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the systems
customer/client and cloud storage provider are different Advantages Disadvantages
companies Small in size, therefore can easily fit into
devices Can be difficult to upgrade
Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated Low cost to make The interface can be confusing sometimes
Requires very little power Troubleshooting is a specialist’s job
environment behind a company firewall; customer/client Often thrown away as difficult to upgrade and
Very fast reaction to changing input
and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate Dedicated to one task only
faults are harder to find
Increased garbage as they are thrown away
as a single entity Can be controlled remotely Any computerised system is prone to attacks
Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above
environments; some data resides in the private cloud, Applications of Embedded devices
and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed GPS systems
from a public cloud storage provider Security Systems
Vending Machines
Washing Machines
Oven
Microwave

3.7. Network Hardware

Network Interface Card (NIC)
3.6. Embedded System A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to
connect to a network (such as the Internet).
A combination of hardware and software is designed to
carry out a specific set of tasks.
Embedded systems may contain -
Media Access Control (MAC)
Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown as six
peripherals on one single chip groups of hexadecimal digits. The first six display the
Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only manufacturer’s code, and the second half shows the device
System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O serial number.
ports, storage and memory
Process of Embedded Devices - These do not change and are primarily constant for every
Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor device
(ADC needed if the data is analogue) there are two types of MAC addresses: the Universally
Data from the user interface is also sent to the Administered MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally
microprocessor Administered MAC Address (LAA)
The microprocessor then sends signals to actuators
which are the output The only difference between the two types is that UAA is
Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they made Universally and cannot be changed, but it is the
need a software update. opposite for LAA.
Programmable devices have two methods of updating
Connecting the device to a computer and IP Addresses
downloading the update
Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi
link

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IP address allocation: Router functionality:

The network allocates IP addresses. A router is a networking device that directs data
Two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic. packets between different networks.
Static IP addresses: It determines the most efficient path for data
Assigned manually to a device. transmission.
Does not change over time. Sending data to a specific destination on a network:
Dynamic IP addresses: A router examines the destination IP address of
Assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host incoming data packets.
Configuration Protocol) server. It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or
Changes periodically or when the device connects to the next router on the path to the destination.
a different network. The router forwards the data packet to the
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): appropriate next hop.
Widely used protocol. Router's role in IP address assignment:
Consists of four groups of decimal numbers A router can act as a DHCP server (Dynamic Host
separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.0.1). Configuration Protocol) and assign IP addresses to
Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses. devices on a local network.
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): It dynamically allocates IP addresses from a
Developed to address the limitations of IPv4. predefined range to connected devices.
Uses eight groups of hexadecimal numbers DHCP allows for automatic IP address configuration
separated by colons (e.g., and simplifies network management.
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). Connecting a local network to the Internet:
Provides an extremely large number of unique A router serves as the gateway between a local
addresses (approximately 340 undecillion). network and the internet.
Differences between IPv4 and IPv6: It connects the local network to an internet service
Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6 provider (ISP) network.
uses a 128-bit address. The router receives data packets from devices on the
Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3 local network and forwards them to the internet.
billion addresses, whereas IPv6 offers around 340 It also receives incoming data packets from the
undecillion addresses. internet and routes them to the appropriate devices
Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are allocated on the local network.
manually using DHCP, while IPv6 addresses are
primarily assigned using stateless autoconfiguration. 3.8. Types of Software and Interrupts
Routers Types of Software
1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility
programs and device drivers
2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word
processor, etc.

System Software:

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these are a set of programs which control and manage Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text
the operations of hardware documents, including creating, editing, and formatting
gives a platform for other software to run text with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and
it is required to allow hardware and software to run importing images.
without problems Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data
provides a human-computer interface (HCI) to the user using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows,
controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources with each cell identified using a unique combination of
columns and rows. It can calculate using formulas,
Application Software: produce graphs, and do modelling and "what if"
calculations.
allows a user to perform specific tasks using the Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and
computer’s resources manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that
maybe a single program (for example, NotePad) or a hold records and fields. It provides the ability to query
suite of programs (for example, Microsoft Office) and report on data and add, delete, and modify records
user can execute the software when they require, and it in a table.
is mostly not automatic Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to
interface with sensors and allow a computer or
Examples microprocessor to measure physical quantities and
control applications by comparing sensor data with
System Software: stored data and altering process parameters accordingly.
Apps: Software designed to run on mobile phones or
Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine tablets, downloaded from an "App Store" and ranging
code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform from games to sophisticated software such as phone
tasks without re-compilation. banking. Common examples include video and music
Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler streaming, GPS, and camera facilities.
into a single program, allowing the use of separately Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows
written code modules in the final program. users to manipulate digital photographs or videos,
Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to including changing colour, brightness, and contrast,
communicate with a computer's operating system, applying filters and other enhancements, and creating
without which a device like a printer would be unable to transitions between clips.
work. Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows
Operating system: Software that manages basic the manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with
computer functions such as input/output operations, bitmap graphics editors changing pixels to produce a
program loading and running, and security management, different image, while vector graphics editors manipulate
making computers more user-friendly. lines, curves, and text to alter the stored image as
Utility programs: Software that manages, maintains, and required.
controls computer resources by carrying out specific
tasks, such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file Interrupts
management, and security.
An interrupt is a signal sent to the microprocessor, either
Application Software: from a device or software, prompting the microprocessor to
pause its ongoing tasks and handle the interrupt
temporarily. Various factors can trigger interrupts, including:

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Timing signals: Scheduled signals prompt the Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for
microprocessor to pause and handle tasks at specific protecting computers from malware.
intervals. They should be kept up to date and run in the
Input/Output processes: Events such as a disk drive or background to maintain their effectiveness.
printer requiring additional data cause an interruption in Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or
the microprocessor's activities. loaded and compares possible viruses against a
Hardware faults: Issues like a paper jam in a printer, database of known viruses.
signalling the microprocessor to halt its operations and Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses
address the hardware problem. that are not yet on the database.
User interaction: Instances like a user pressing specific Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic
keys on a keyboard (e.g., ), leading to an interrupt in the deletion or for the user to decide.
system's operation. Anti-virus software must be updated as new viruses are
Software errors: Problems such as missing .exe files constantly discovered.
needed to initiate a program, conflicts like two processes Full system scans should be carried out regularly to
accessing the exact memory location, or attempts to detect dormant viruses.
divide by zero. These errors trigger interrupts, prompting
the microprocessor to handle the issues. Disk Defragmentation Software
Defragmentation software rearranges the data blocks on
a hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in contiguous
sectors, reducing head movements and improving data
access time.
As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become
scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) movements to find the data.
When a file is deleted or extended, new data does not fill
the vacant sectors immediately, causing the files to
3.9. Utility Software become more scattered throughout the disk surfaces.
A disk defragmenter rearranges the data blocks to store
Computer users have access to utility programs as part
files in contiguous sectors wherever possible, allowing
of system software
for faster data access and retrieval.
Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the
The defragmentation process can free up previously
background without user input
occupied sectors and empty some tracks.
Common utility programs include virus checkers,
defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools, Backup Software
file compression and management software, backup
software, security tools, and screensavers.

Virus Checkers & Anti-Virus Software

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Backup software is a utility software that helps create Device drivers translate data into a format that can be
and manage backup copies of data files and programs. understood by the hardware device they are associated
Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard with.
drives are good practices, but operating system backup Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device
utilities are also recommended. cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised
Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only by the operating system.
backup files if changes have been made to them. USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a
There could be three file versions for total security: the vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID) and unique serial
current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a locally number that allow the operating system to identify the
backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote backup device.
on cloud storage. Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two
devices with the same serial number are plugged into a
Security Software computer simultaneously.

Security software is a utility software that manages

access control, user accounts, and links to other utilities
3.10. Operating Systems
such as virus and spyware checkers. Operating Systems are designed to establish
It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to
communication between the user and the computer
prevent unauthorized access.
Functions of a typical operating system -
Security software uses encryption and decryption to -managing files
ensure intercepted data is unreadable without a – handling interrupts
decryption key. – providing an interface
It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources
– managing peripherals and drivers
and prevent malicious software from being installed.
– managing memory
Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords – managing multitasking
to secure user data and prevent unauthorized access. – providing a platform for running applications
– providing system security
Screensavers – managing user accounts
Screensavers display moving and still images on the WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu, and Pointing Devices
monitor screen after computer inactivity. Advantages and Disadvantages of CLI and GUI
They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors
from 'phosphor burn'.
Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a
device and as a part of computer security systems.
They automatically log out of the user after a certain
period of inactivity.
Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like
virus scans and distributed computing applications.

Device Drivers

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Interrupts
Signal that causes the microprocessor to stop what it's
doing and service the task
Ensures important tasks are dealt with on a priority basis
It can be a software or a hardware interrupt
Peripherals like a keyboard & mouse can generate it
Different interrupts have different levels of priority
After interruption is dealt with, the previous process
continues

3.11. Programming Languages,

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -
Second Edition (Hodder Education) Translators and IDEs
Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the Computers can only understand machine code;
HDD/SSD during the execution of programs therefore, translators are needed
Security Management - Providing security features such
High-Level Languages
as Anti-Virus, System updates and so on
Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device It is easier to read and understand as the language is
drives, Inputs, Outputs, Queues and buffers closer to human language.
File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting, Easier to write in a shorter time
Renaming, and many more functions Easier to debug at the development stage
Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources Easier to maintain once in use
with each of the processes
Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple Low-Level Languages
users to customise their accounts individually.
Refer to machine code
Running of Applications Binary instructions that the computer understands

The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer)

through the bootstrap loader.
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer
the location of the OS in the storage.
BIOS is often referred to as the firmware

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer

Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Assembly Language

Few programmers use assembly language to -

Make use of special hardware
Write code that doesn’t take up much space
Write code that runs very quickly
Assembly language must be translated into machine
code using an assembler to run.

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An IDE would usually have these features -

3.12. Translators Code Editor
Translator
Compiler Debugger
Translates a program written in a high-level language Error Reports
into machine code Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction
Used without compiler Auto-Documenter
Executable file of machine code produced Pretty Printing
One high-level language translated into several machine
code instructions
Used for general use
4. The Internet and Its Uses
Interpreter 4.1. The Internet and the World Wide
Executes a high-language program a statement at a time Web
No executable file of machine code produced
One high-level language program statement may require Internet World Wide Web (WWW)
Uses transmission protocols such as TCP and Collection of webpages and other information
several machine code instructions to be executed. IP (Internet Protocols) on websites
Interpreted programs cannot be used without an Allows the user to communicate with other
users via chat, email, calling and more
Uses HTTP(S) protocols that are written using
Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML)
interpreter Worldwide Collection of Interconnected
Networks and Devices
URLs (Uniform Resource Locator) are used for
the location of the web pages
Used when the program is being developed Web browsers can access web pages.

Assembler Uniform Resource Locator (URLs)

Translates a low-level language program into machine
URLs are used to locate and access web pages. The
code
typical format of URLs is -
Executable file of machine code produced
One low-level language translated into one machine protocol://website address/path/file name
code instructions
It can be used without an assembler The protocol would usually be HTTP or HTTPS
Used for general use The website address would contain -
domain host (www)
Compiler Interpreter Assembler
Translates a high-level Executes a high-level language Translates a low-level
domain name (website name)
language program into
machine code.
program one statement at a
time.
assembly language program
into machine code.
domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov) or sometimes
An executable file of machine No executable file of machine
code is produced. code is produced.
An executable file of machine
code is produced.
country codes (.uk, .in, .cy)
One high-level language One high-level language One low-level language The path would usually become the file directory roots.
statement can be translated program statement may statement is usually translated
into several machine code require several machine code into one machine code for example, https://www.znotes.com/computer-science
instructions. instructions to be executed. instruction.
Compiled programs are run Interpreted programs cannot Assembled programs are used
The /computer-science is the file name
without the compiler. be run without the interpreter. without the assembler.
A compiled program is usually Anwhen
interpreter is often used
a program is being
An assembled program is
usually distributed for general HTTP and HTTPS
distributed for general use. developed. use.

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer

HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and HTTPS
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol secure
They are safety protocols maintained while transmitting
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) data.

Web Browsers
It is software used to connect to the internet
It translates the HTML code
ensures SSL & TLS security can be established
Offers additional features like search history & ad
blockers

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Retrieval and Location of web pages
The browser sends the URL to the domain name server
(DNS)
DNS stores the index and matches it with the IP
IP is sent to the browser if it exists
The browser sends a request to the IP of the webserver
Browser interprets the HTML

Cookies
Cookies are small files stored on the user’s computer
They are used to track data about the users and autofill The first block is called the genesis block as it doesn’t point
forms or give suggestions accordingly to any previous block (Previous Hash Value - 0000)
Types of Cookies -
Session Cookie Persistent Cookie
4.3. Cyber Security
Remembers the user’s login details so the user
Temporary cookies are stored in the RAM till
the browser is closed. doesn’t have to log in every time they visit a
website Brute Force Attack:
Doesn’t collect any information on the user Stored on the hard disk on the computer until

A good example is the virtual shopping basket

their expiry date or the user deletes them Hackers try to guess your password by trying all the
on e-commerce websites. different combinations of letters, numbers and symbols.
Effect:
4.2. Digital Currency Hacker gets access to user’s personal data (credit
cards, passwords and more)
Form of payment to pay for goods and services To remove risk:
A few examples are Debit/Credit Cards, Apps (Paypal, Use stronger passwords with more characters and
Apple Pay, Bank Transfers and many more) symbols
Cryptocurrency was later introduced due to the problem
in centralised banking systems. Data Interception:
Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of This involves stealing data by tapping into a wired or a
transactions. wireless transmission line
Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses Wardriving - The act of locating and using wireless
Blockchain Network internet connections illegally
Packet Sniffing - Uses Packet sniffers to examine
Blockchain Network packets sent over a line; all the data collected is sent
back to the attacker
Blockchain Network involves several interconnected
Effect:
computers where the transaction data is stored
It can cause a computer to crash
Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would
Can delete or corrupt files/data
be sent to all the computers, and the data can’t be
To remove risk:
changed without the consent of all the network
Install anti-virus software
members
Don’t use software from unknown sources
How do blockchains work Be careful when opening emails from unknown
Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created. The
Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (DDoS)
block would contain -

Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount of

money and more
Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm
Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous block
in the chain

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An attempt at preventing users from accessing part of a Attackers send legitimate-looking emails to bait the user
network into giving out their information.
Usually temporary but may be damaging To remove risk:
An attacker may be able to prevent the user from: Don’t open links from unknown receivers
Accessing their emails Use anti-phishing tools
Accessing websites Block pop-up ads
Accessing online services Have an up-to-date browser

Hacking Pharming

The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system The attacker installs a malicious code on the computer,
Effect: which redirects the user to fake websites
This leads to identity theft, gaining personal Effect:
information The user gives out login details and other personal
Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted details
To remove risk: To remove risk:
Firewalls Using anti-virus software
Strong passwords/ user IDs Checking the spelling and the weblink carefully
Use of anti-hacking software Make sure that the green padlock is present in the
Difference between hacking and cracking URL bar
Hacking breaks into computer systems to steal data
Cracking is when someone edits a program code, Social Engineering
malicious Attackers create a social situation which leads to victims
Malware giving out their details (For example - Spam calls
informing them that their account has been hacked)
Stands for Malicious Software. A few examples are -
Virus - A program that can replicate itself with the Keeping data safe from threats
intention of deleting or corrupting files, causing a
computer malfunction Access Levels - Having Different levels of access for
Ransomware - Attackers encrypt the user’s data until different people (for example - Only doctors can have
a certain amount of money is paid access to patient’s data)
Adware - Displays unwanted ads on the user’s screen Antivirus - Protects user’s computer from malware
Trojan Horse - Programs that are disguised as attacks
legitimate software Authentication - User proving who they are. The most
Spyware - Sends data about all the activities of the common methods are passwords, PINs, Mobiles (OTPs),
user to the attacker biometrics and more)
Worms - Programs that can replicate themselves with
Benefits and Drawbacks of Biometric Method
the intention of corrupting the entire network instead Biometric Benefits Drawbacks
of the computer alone Methods
Most development methods are very Intrusive as used to identify criminals,
easy to use and require very low
Fingerprint Scans storage
Phishing space to store the biometric Can’t be used if the finger gets dirty
or damaged (e.g. cuts)
data.
Retina Scan With very high accuracy, it Impossible It is very intrusive, Takes longer to
to replicate a person’s retina verify, Expensive to install and set up
Non-intrusive method, Relatively Can’t identify if there are any changes
Face Recognition cheaper in the lighting, change in age or
person’s age.
Voices can be recorded and used for
verification, but low accuracy and
Voice Recognition Non-Intrusive method, verification is
done quickly and relatively cheaper illnesses such as colds or coughs can
affect a person’s voice, making
identification impossible.

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
Advantages Disadvantages
Two-Step Verification - Requires two methods of Faster and Safer
Any changes can be identified quickly
Expensive to set up and maintain
Any computerised systems are prone to attacks
authentication to prove who the user is Less Expensive in the long run Over-reliance on automated systems may cause
humans to lose skills
Automatic Software Updates - Latest updates contain Higher Productivity and Efficiency
patches which improve device security
Spelling and Tone - Fake emails tend to have wrong You should be able to describe the advantages and
spelling and grammar (amazonn instead of amazon), and disadvantages of an automated system used for a given
the tone would also seem urgent scenario.
Firewalls - Hardware or Software which monitors the Including scenarios from:
traffic between a network and the user’s computer
Proxy Servers - Acts as an intermediate between the industry
user’s computer and the web server. They are used for - transport
Filtering Internet traffic agriculture
Keeping the user’s IP Address Confidential weather
Blocking access to certain websites gaming
Attacks like DDoS and Hacking attack the proxy lighting
server, keeping the web server safe. science
Acts as a firewall as well.
Privacy Settings - Used to limit who can access and see a 5.2. Robotics
user’s profile
SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - Set of rules used while Robotics is the branch of computer science that
communicating with other users on the internet. combines robot design, construction and operation.
Isaac Asimov’s Laws of Robotics -
5. Automated and Emerging A robot may not injure a human through action or
inaction
Technologies A robot must obey orders given by humans unless it
comes into conflict with Law 1
a robot must protect itself unless this conflicts with
5.1. Automated Systems either law 1 or 2.
Characteristics of a robot -
Automated Systems are a combination of software and Ability to sense their surroundings
hardware designed to function without human Have a degree of movement
intervention. Programmable
Process of Automated Systems
NOTE - ROBOTS DO NOT POSSESS AI; THEY TEND TO DO
Sensors take inputs, and they are sent to the
REPETITIVE TASKS RATHER THAN REQUIRING HUMAN
microprocessor. The data is usually analogue, so it
CHARACTERISTICS
has to go through Analogue-to-Digital Converter
(ADC) Types of Robots -
The microprocessor processes the data and makes Independent - Have no human intervention; they can
the necessary decisions based on its program completely replace humans
The actions are then executed by the actuators Dependent - Needs human intervention through an
(Motors, wheels and so on) interface, can supplement but can’t completely
replace humans
Advantages and Disadvantages of Automated Systems
Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
Advantages Disadvantages
Robots can work 24/7 Robots can find it difficult to do non-standard
tasks
Robots can work in hazardous conditions Robots can lead to higher unemployment
They are less expensive in the long run Risk of deskilling as robots replace humans in
some task
They have high productivity and are more Expensive to install and maintain in the short
consistent run
Robots have the risk of getting hacked.

5.3. Artificial Intelligence

AI is the branch of computer science that simulates
intelligent human behaviour.
Types of AI -
Narrow AI - A machine has superior performance to a
human when doing one specific task
General AI - A machine is similar to a human when
doing one specific task
Strong AI - Machine has superior performance to a
human in many tasks
Characteristics of AI -
Collection of Data and Rules
Ability to Reason
Ability to learn and adapt

Types of AI
Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human
knowledge and experiences. They are usually used for
answering questions using knowledge and inference.
They have many applications, including chatbots,
diagnosis in the medical industry, financial calculations
and so on

Advantages and Disadvantages of Expert Systems

Advantages Disadvantages
High level of Expertise Setup and Maintenance costs are very high
High Accuracy and Consistent Can only rely on the information in the system
High response times Tend to give cold responses sometimes

Machine Learning is a subset of AI in which machines

are trained to learn from past experiences.

Difference Between AI and Machine Learning

AI Machine Learning
Representation of human intelligence in Machines are trained to make decisions
machines without being programmed to
The aim is to build machines that think like The aim is to make machines learn through
humans data acquisitions

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authorised for personal use only by Alvina at Cambridge International School, Dubai on 19/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE
Computer Science

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