Chapter 3

The Real Number System

3.1 Motivational Examples

.

Let us have a careful look at the ‘mathematical operations and their properties on Real numbers’
that we rely on everyday, when we solve a mathematical problem.

Example 3.1.1. Commission or salary? Jill has a job offer at a plant store. She is offered
either $50 per day or $30 per day plus a commission of $3 for every plant she sells. How
many plants does she need to sell to make the commission offer the best paying option?

Solution: Let the number of plants she needs to sell be x.

Salary for a day is $50 and the commission scheme for a day is $(30+3x). The commission
offer is the best if and only if
30 + 3x > 50.

This is a linear inequality. We need to solve this inequality for x. Clearly we need to
isolate the unknown, namely x. What properties of the real numbers and the operations do
we rely on to solve this?

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 Example 3.1.2. If a ball is thrown upward from the top of a building 20m high with an
initial velocity of 10ms−1 , then the height h above the ground t seconds later will be given
by the equation h = 20 + 10t − 5t2 . During what time interval will the ball be at least 5m
above the ground?

Solution: The time interval at which the height of the ball is at least 5m above the ground
is determined by solving for t such that

h(t) ≥ 5.

This means
20 + 10t − 5t2 ≥ 5.

This is a quadratic inequality. How do we solve for t? What are the legitimate operations
and logical reasoning we can use to do this?

Example 3.1.3. A boat must travel 16km upstream and 16km downstream. The river
current has a speed of 3km per hour. What is the minimum speed of the boat if it is to
complete this task within 4 hours?

Solution: Let the speed of the boat be x km per hour.

Since the river current has a speed of 3km per hour, the boat will travel at a speed of
distance
(x + 3)km per hour downstream and (x − 3)km per hour upstream. Since speed = ,
time
distance
we have time = ; hence, using the given information we have the following:
speed
16 16
+ ≤ 4.
x+3 x−3

This is an inequality of rational expressions. What important properties of the real number
system can we use to solve this inequality?

The full solutions to Examples 3.1.1–3.1.3 will shown later in Exercise 3.3.1 once we have dis-
cussed the properties of the real number system.

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 3.2 Rational Numbers and Irrational Numbers
.

The major constituents of the real number system (denoted by R) are the Rational numbers (de-
noted by Q) and the irrational numbers. A real number is rational, that is, it’s an element of Q, if it
a
can be written in the form where a, b are integers (denoted by Z) with b , 0. If a number does
b
not have such a representation, then it is irrational. The set of rational numbers Q can be further
divided into two subsets; the set of integers Z and the set of Non-Integers. The set of Natural
numbers (denoted by N) is the set of all positive integers and is clearly a subset of Z. Figure 3.2.1
below shows the major components of the real number system.

Figure 3.2.1: Major components of the real number system.

A real number can be considered as an infinite decimal. In this context, a rational is a repeating
decimal and thus an irrational is a non − repeating decimal.

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 Example 3.2.1. Examples of rational numbers and their representations as repeating deci-
mals.

7
(a) = 0.7000000.... (repeating digit is 0)
10
45
(b) = 11.25000000.... (repeating digit is 0)
4
13
(c) = 0.65000000.... (repeating digit is 0)
20
23
(d) = 1.4375000000.... (repeating digit is 0)
16
4
(e) = 0.44444444.... (repeating digit is 4)
9
8
(f) = 0.7272727272.... (repeating digits are 7 and 2)
11
11
(g) = 0.407407407.... (repeating digits are 4, 0 and 7)
27
21
(h) = 0.40384615384615384615.... (repeating digits are 3, 8, 4, 6, 1 and 5)
52

When the repeating digit is 0, the number is called a terminating decimal. Items (a) – (d) in
Example 3.2.1 are terminating decimals, and are simply written up till the non-zero decimal digit
just before the repeating zeros. Hence,

7 45 13 23
= 0.7, = 11.25, = 0.65 and = 1.4375.
10 4 20 16

If the recurring pattern consists of digits other than just zero, then this pattern is called the repetend
of the decimal number. Items (e) – (h) in Example 3.2.1 have repetends. The following notation
is used to indicate the repetition of this repetend:

4 8 11 21
= 0.4̇, = 0.72, = 0.407 and = 0.40384615.
9 11 27 52

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 Exercise 3.2.1. What is the difference between the denominators of the terminating deci-
mals (Example 3.2.1(a) – (d)) and the decimals with a repetend (Example 3.2.1(e) – (h))?
Try to recognise a fraction as a terminating decimal or a decimal with a repetend just by
examining the denominator.

Solution/Discussion: During lecture.

Any repeating decimal is a rational number, that is, it is a quotient of two integers with denomina-
tor not equal to zero. How do we determine the quotient of a repeating decimal?

Example 3.2.2. Determine the quotient of the repeating decimal

x = 17.3465 = 17.3465656565......

Solution: Multiply both sides by 100 and 10000 to get two equations:

100x = 1734.65 (3.2.1)

10000x = 173465.65 (3.2.2)

Subtracting Equation (3.2.1) from (3.2.2) gives

9900x = 171731
171731
∴ x=
9900

Exercise 3.2.2. Determine the quotient of the repeating decimal

x = 21.0147814781478... = 21.01478

Solution: During lecture.

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Summary:
• A real number is rational if and only if it is a repeating decimal;
• An irrational number can’t be represented as a fraction whose numerator and denominator are
integers; and
√ √ √
• Examples of irrational numbers include 2, 3, − 5, π and Euler’s number e.
There is a wealth of information on the web on basic, important and interesting facts of rational
and irrational numbers. Also, don’t forget the library!

3.3 Properties of the Real Number System

.

The set of real numbers together with its basic operations Addition and Multiplication is called
the Real Number System. This system is denoted by R. The following topics will be discussed:

(1) Algebraic properties of R that are based on the two operations of addition and multiplication;
(2) The Order Properties of R; and
(3) The concept of the Absolute Value of a real number and its properties.

There is little doubt that the above properties of real numbers have been used in every mathe-
matical calculation you have done in the past. These properties are taken for granted, and rarely
acknowledged until now. But in preparing to discuss other number systems such as the Complex
Numbers (denoted by C), this acknowledgement of basic algebraic properties of R is essential. It
is important to note that not all number systems have all the above properties.

3.3.1 Algebraic Properties of R

.

On the set of real numbers R there are two operations called addition (denoted by +) and multiplication
(denoted by · or ×). These operations satisfy the following properties:

(A1) a + b = b + a, ∀a, b ∈ R (Commutativity of addition);

(A2) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c), ∀a, b, c ∈ R (Associativity of addition);
(A3) There exists an element 0 in R such that 0 + a = a = a + 0, ∀a ∈ R (The existence of the
zero element);
(A4) For each a ∈ R, there exists an element −a ∈ R such that a + (−a) = 0 = (−a) + a (The

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existence of the additive inverse);
(M1) a · b = b · a, ∀a, b ∈ R (Commutativity of multiplication);
(M2) (a · b) · c = a · (b · c), ∀a, b, c ∈ R (Associativity of multiplication);
(M3) There exists an element 1 in R such that 1 · a = a = a · 1 ∀a ∈ R (The existence of the
identity element for multiplication);
1 1 1
(M4) For each a , 0 ∈ R, there exists an element ∈ R such that a · = 1 = · a (The
a a a
existence of the multiplicative inverse); and
(D) a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c) and (b + c) · a = (b · a) + (c · a), ∀a, b, c ∈ R (Distributive
property of multiplication over addition).

Clearly, the algebraic properties do not require further attention here. However; when using these
properties in any calculation, it is important to be mindful about the particular property being used
at a given step and to acknowledge the fact that the property is necessary to complete the task.

3.3.2 Order Properties of R

.

The real numbers have the property that they are ordered, which means that given any two differ-
ent real numbers it can be said that one is greater or less than the other. A more formal way of say
this is: For a, b ∈ R, exactly one of the following statements will hold:

(1) a is less than b, expressed as a < b,

(2) a is equal to b, expressed as a = b,
(3) a is greater than b, expressed as a > b.

Note we write a ≤ b to mean a < b or a = b. The ordered nature of the real numbers enables
them be arranged along a line (number line). The points on the line are ordered so that points to
the right are greater than points to the left, as shown in Figure 3.3.1 below.

2
-2.4
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Figure 3.3.1: Number line showing order.

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Solving inequalities: The general process for solving inequalities closely parallels that for solving
equations (or equalities). The exact procedure for simplifying inequalities is based primarily on
three properties: For a, b, c ∈ R

(O1) a > b if and only if a + c > b + c;

(O2) If c > 0 then a > b if and only if a · c > b · c; and
(O3) If c < 0 then a > b if and only if a · c < b · c.

The following simple examples demonstrate how the above properties of inequalities are used
when solving inequalities.

Example 3.3.1. (a) Determine the set A of real numbers x such that 2x + 3 ≤ 6.
(b) Determine the set B of real numbers x such that −2x + 3 ≤ 6.
3x 1
(c) Determine the set C of real numbers x such that ≥ .
4 5

Solution: (a)

2x + 3 ≤ 6

=⇒ 2x ≤ 3, using (O1)
3
∴ x ≤ . using (O2)
2

{ } ( ]
3 3
Therefore in set notation, A = x : x ∈ R, x ≤ ; using interval notation, A = −∞, .
2 2
The solution set on the number line is:

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

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 Solution: (b)

− 2x + 3 ≤ 6

=⇒ − 2x ≤ 3, using (O1)
3
∴ x≥− . using (O3)
2

{ } [ )
3 3
Therefore in set notation, B = x : x ∈ R, x ≥ − ; using interval notation, B = − , ∞ .
2 2
The solution set on the number line is:

-2 -1 0 1 2 3

Solution: (c)

3x 1
≥
(4 ) ( 5 ) ( ) ( )
4 3x 4 1
=⇒ ≥ , using (O2)
3 4 3 5
4
∴ x≥ .
15

{ } [ )
4 4
Therefore in set notation, C = x : x ∈ R, x ≥ ; using interval notation, C = ,∞ .
15 15
The solution set on the number line is:

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

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Solving compound inequalities: The words ‘and’ and ‘or’ are used to join two inequalities to
form a compound inequality.

Example 3.3.2. Graph the solution set for the compound inequality x > 2 and x < 5 and
write the solution set in interval notation and set notation.

Solution: The set of real numbers x satisfying the inequality x > 2 can be shown on the
number line:

0 2 4 6

Similarly, the set of real numbers x satisfying the inequality x < 5 can be shown on the
number line:

0 2 4 6

Hence, the set of real numbers x satisfying both x > 2 and x < 5 can be represented on the
number line as:

0 2 4 6

The solution set using interval notation is (2, 5); the set notation solution is
{x : x ∈ R, 2 < x < 5}.

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 Example 3.3.3. Graph the solution set for the compound inequality x < 2 or x > 5 and
write the solution set in interval notation and set notation.

Solution: The set of real numbers x satisfying the inequality x < 2 can be shown on the
number line:

0 2 4 6

Similarly, the set of real numbers x satisfying the inequality x > 5 can be shown on the
number line:

0 2 4 6

Hence, the set of real numbers x satisfying x < 2 or x > 5 can be represented on the
number line as:

0 2 4 6

Since the solution set contains two intervals the union symbol, ∪, is used in the interval
notation. The solution set is written as (−∞, 2) ∪ (5, ∞). The set notation solution is
{x : x ∈ R, x < 2 or x > 5}.

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 Example 3.3.4. Determine the solution set for the inequality x2 + x > 2 and write the
solution set in interval notation and set notation.

Solution:

x2 + x > 2 =⇒ x2 + x − 2 > 0

=⇒ (x + 2)(x − 1) > 0

Consider the graph y = (x + 2)(x − 1).

X-intercepts when y = 0:

=⇒ (x + 2)(x − 1) = 0

=⇒ x = −2, 1.

X
-3 -2 -1 1 2

-1

-2

What are the x values for which x2 + x − 2 > 0? That is, the x values for which y > 0?
From the graph above it can be seen that

y > 0 ⇐⇒ x < −2 or x > 1.

Continued ...
.

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 This is a compound inequality. Therefore, the solution set using interval notation is
(−∞, −2) ∪ (1, ∞) and in set notation the solution set is {x : x ∈ R, x < −2 or x > 1}.
The solution can be shown on the number line:

-4 -2 0 2 4

Optional: Solving inequality without using graph

Example 3.3.5. Determine the solution set for the inequality x2 + x > 2.

Solution: From above x2 + x > 2 =⇒ x2 + x − 2 > 0 =⇒ (x − 1)(x + 2) > 0. The right

hand inequality is true if either:
(i) x − 1 > 0 and x + 2 > 0; or
(ii) x − 1 < 0 and x + 2 < 0.

Case (i) requires x > 1 and x > −2:

-4 -2 0 2 4

Which is satisfied if and only if x > 1. This part of the solution is shown on the number
line below.

-4 -2 0 2 4

Continued ...
.

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 Case (ii) requires x < 1 and x < −2:

-4 -2 0 2 4

Which is satisfied if and only if x < −2. This part of the solution is shown on the number
line below.

-4 -2 0 2 4

Therefore the solution to x2 + x > 2 is {x : x ∈ R, x > 1} ∪ {x : x ∈ R, x < −2}. The

solution is shown in the number line below.

-4 -2 0 2 4

Exercise 3.3.1. This exercise refers to the motivational Examples 3.1.1–3.1.3.

(a) Commission or salary? Jill has a job offer at a plant store. She is offered either $50 per
day or $30 per day plus a commission of $3 for every plant she sells. How many plants
does she need to sell to make the commission offer the best paying option?

Solution: During lecture.

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 (b) If a ball is thrown upward from the top of a building 20m high with an initial velocity
of 10ms−1 , then the height h above the ground t seconds later will be given by the equation
h = 20 + 10t − 5t2 . During what time interval will the ball be at least 5m above the ground?

Solution: During lecture.

(c) A boat must travel 16km upstream and 16km downstream. The river current has a
speed of 3km per hour. What is the minimum speed of the boat if it is to complete this task
within 4 hours?

Solution: During lecture.

3.3.3 Absolute Value

.

This section will briefly look into the notion of the Absolute Value of a real number. The Absolute
Value of a number is merely the distance between the origin and the number on the number line.
This concept has many consequences; it is vital for our discussion to follow in numerous places
and is part of the fundamental building blocks of mathematical theory.

Definition 3.3.1. For any real number x, the absolute value of x, denoted | x |, is defined as
follows:







 x , if x > 0





|x| = 
 0 , if x = 0








 −x , if x < 0
.

√ √ √ √ √
For example: | 2 | = 2; | − 3 | = 3; | 2−1 | = 2 − 1; and | 2 − 3 | = | − (3 − 2) | = 3 − 2.

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Essentially, the absolute value of a number x ∈ R is the distance from zero to x along the real
number line, as shown in Figure 3.3.2 below.

|x|

0 x

|x|

x 0

Figure 3.3.2: Number line showing distance as given by the absolute value.

Example 3.3.6. Solve:

(a) | z | = 3;
(b) | z | < 3; and
(c) | z | ≥ 3

Solution: (a) | z | = 3 if and only if z = ±3.

Therefore the solution is the set {−3, 3}. On the number line:

-4 -2 0 2 4

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 Solution: (b) | z | < 3 if and only if −3 < z < 3.

Therefore the solution is the set {z : z ∈ R, −3 < z < 3}. On the number line:

-4 -2 0 2 4

Solution: (c) | z | ≥ 3 if and only if z ≤ −3 or z ≥ 3.

Therefore the solution is the set {z : z ∈ R, z ≤ −3 or z ≥ 3}. On the number line:

-4 -2 0 2 4

Exercise 3.3.2. Solve:

(a) | x − 6 | = 2;
(b) | x − 6 | ≤ 2; and
(c) | x − 6 | > 2

Solution: During lecture.

Exercise 3.3.3. At the TX Design Company, the mean starting salary for a new designer is
$53, 600, but the actual salary could vary from the mean by as much as $2, 560. Set up an
absolute value inequality and determine the salary range for a new designer.

Solution: During lecture.

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Properties of the absolute value:

For all x, y ∈ R,

(AB1) | x | ≥ 0; | x | = 0 ⇐⇒ x = 0;
(AB2) | xy | = | x | | y |; and
(AB3) | x + y | ≤ | x | + | y |.

The proof of the properties (AB1)–(AB3) is as follows:

Proof. (AB1) and (AB2): Obvious by the definition of the absolute value.
(AB3): Notice that
−| x | ≤ x ≤ | x |

is always true for any x ∈ R because x equals either −| x | or | x |. The corresponding statement for
y is
−| y | ≤ y ≤ | y |.

Adding these inequalities gives

−| x | − | y | ≤ x + y ≤ | x | + | y |

which is the same as

−(| x | + | y |) ≤ x + y ≤ | x | + | y |.

For any x, y ∈ R,
x + y ≤ | x | + | y |.

Also,
−(x + y) = (−x) + (−y) ≤ | x | + | y |.

Therefore, for any x, y ∈ R, | x + y | ≤ | x | + | y |.



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