PRASHANTI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

AND SCIENCE, UJJAIN (M.P.)

Laboratory Manual

B.Tech SEMESTER - I / II / I YEAR

Basic Mechanical Engineering Lab

(BT-203)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Exp. No of
Aim of the Experiment
No. Hours

1 Introduction of various types boilers. 2

2 To study the working and construction details of Lancashire Boilers 2

3 To study the working and construction details of Locomotive Boiler 2

4 To study the working and construction details of Cochran Boiler 2

To study the working and construction details of Babcock & Wilcox

5 2
Boiler
To study the working and function of mountings and accessories in
6 2
boilers
To Study and sketch about the principle and working of two stroke
7 2
Diesel Engine

To Study and sketch about the principle and working of two stroke
8 2
I.C. Engine or Petrol Engine

To Study and sketch about the principle of working of four stroke

9 2
I.C. Engine or Petrol Engine and Diesel Engine

10 Introduction to Lathe Machine and various machining processes 2

performed on lathe machine.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 1

AIM: - Introduction of various types boilers.

APPARATUS: - Model of Boiler.

THEORY:-

Boiler: - A steam boiler is a closed vessel in which steam is produced from water by combustion
of fuel.
Classification of Boiler:

Boilers are classified on the basis of following-

1. According to contents in the Tube:
A) Fire tube boiler: In fire tube boilers, the flue gases pass through the tube and water surround
them.
B) Water tube boiler: In water tube boiler, water flows inside the tubes and the hot flue gases
flow outside the tubes.
2. According to the pressure of steam:
A) Low pressure boiler: A boiler which generates steam at a pressure of below 80 bars is called
low pressure boiler. Example- Cochran boiler, Lancashire boiler etc.
B) High pressure boiler: A boiler which generates steam at a pressure higher than 80 bar is
called high pressure boiler. Example- Babcock and Wilcox boiler etc.
3. According to method of circulation of water:
A) Natural Circulation: In natural circulation boiler, circulation of water due to gravity or the
circulation of water takes place by natural convection current produced by the application of
heat, example-Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Lancashire boiler etc.
B) Forced Circulation: In the forced circulation boiler, circulation of water by a pump to
increase the circulation. Example- Lamont boiler etc.
4. According to the Position of the furnace:
A) Internally fired boilers: In this, the furnace is located inside the boiler shell. Example-
Cochran, Locomotive and Lancashire boilers.
B) Externally fired boilers: In this, the furnace is located outside the boiler shell. Example-
Babcock and Wilcox boiler etc.
5. According to the axis of shell:
A) Vertical boilers: If the axis of the shell of boiler is vertical so the boiler is called as vertical
boiler.
B) Horizontal boilers: If the axis of the shell of boiler is horizontal so the boiler is called as
Horizontal boilers.
C) Inclined boilers: If the axis of the shell of boiler is Inclined so the boiler is called as Inclined

boiler.
Vertical boilers
 EXPERIMENT-2

AIM- To study and sketch about Lancashire Boilers

APPARATUS USED:

Model of Lancashire Boilers

INTRODUCTION:
A Lancashire Boiler is fire tube boiler. Its normal working pressure range is 15 bar and
steaming capacity is about 8000 Kg/h. Its size varies from about 8 meters to 9 meters in length
and from 2 to 3.5 meters in diameter.

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS:
It consists the following parts:
1. Feed Check Valve: Feed water is supplied to the boiler under pressure, feed check valve
stops it escaping back.
2. Pressure Gauge: It is used for measuring the pressure of steam.
3. Water level Gauge: It indicates the level of water in the boiler.
4. Dead weight safety valve: It is for safety against pressure in excess of the rated pressure.
5. Steam stop valve: It opens and closes the supply of steam for using.
6. Man Hole: It is for cleaning and inspecting the drum.
7. Fire Grate: The grate in which the solid fuel is burnt.
8. Fire Bridge: This is used for deflecting the gases of combustion upwards.
9. Flue Tubes: These are for the first pass of the flow of the flue gases. The flue tubes are
tapered being larger in diameter at the front and smaller at the back.
10. Boiler Shell: It is used for containing water and steam. It is made of several welded and
riveted rings of Simens-martin open hearth steel plates.
11. Dampers: It is used for controlling the flow of flue gases. These are iron doors which slide
up and down in the grooves by rope and pulley.
12. Blow off cock: Blow off cock is provided at the bottom of the shell by a bent pipe to
blow off sludge at intervals. Since the water shell is not perfectly horizontal, a few degrees tilting
towards the front enables all the sediments to accumulate in front near the blow off cock.
 EXPERIMENT-3

AIM: To study and sketch about the Locomotive Boiler.

APPARATUS USED: The model of Locomotive Boiler

INTRODUCTION:

The Locomotive Boiler is horizontal, multi-tubular, natural circulation, internally

fired, fire tubeboiler. The maximum pressure range 21bar and streaming rate is as high
as 55 to 70 Kg per square meter of heating surface per hour.

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS:

It consists of cylindrical steel shell. There is a rectangular fire box at the back end of the
shell which forms a combined grate and combustion chamber. The main parts of the
locomotive boilerare given below:

1. Fire Box
2. Grate
3. Fire Hole
4. Fire Bridge Arch
5. Damper
6. Ash Pit
7. Fine Tube
8. Cylindrical Barrel or Shell
9. Smoke Box
10. Chimney
11. Exhaust Steam Pipe
12. Steam Dome
13. Regulator
14. Super Heater Tubes
15. Super Heater Header
16. Super Heater Exit Tube
17. Smoke Box Door
18. Feed Check Valve
19. Safety Valve
20. Water Gauge
WORKING PROCESS

The coal is burnt in the fire box and produces the hot flue gases. These flue gases rising from
the grate are deflected upwards by a fire bridge and so that its come into contact with the walls
and roof of the fire box. Due to the motion of the locomotive a strong draught is created and
the atmospheric air rushes into the fire box through the dampers. The function of the dampers
is to control the quantity of air entering in the fire box. The ash of the coal burnt on the grate
falls intothe ash pit. The hot flue gases pass from the furnace box to the smoke box through
horizontal smoke tubes. A large door in the front of the smoke box gives access to it and the
tubes for examination and cleaning purposes. The hot gases from the smoke box are
discharged to the atmosphere through a short chimney.

Locomotive Boiler

During the travel of hot gases from the grate to the chimney, they give heat to the water and
generate steam. The generated steam is collected in the steam dome is to increase the steam
release capacity and to increase the distance of steam from water line which reduces
priming.The driver operates the regulator by turning a lever which leads the dry is diverted to
superheatedheader with the help of a regulator and lever arrangement and then to superheater
tubes. They start from the superheater header and are laid inside the large diameter fire tubes
supply heat to the super heater tube that heat the steam inside superheater tubes which get
superheater steam.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 4
AIM: - To study the working and construction details of Cochran.
APPARATUS: - Model of Cochran boiler

THEORY:-

Cochran boiler is a vertical, multi-tubular, fire tube, internally fired, natural circulation boiler.
CONSTRUCTION:

Figure shows a Cochran boiler. It consists of a vertical cylindrical shell having a hemispherical top
and furnace is also hemispherical in shape. The fire grate is arranged in the furnace and the ash pit
is provided below the grate. A fire door is attached on the fire box. Adjacent to the fire box, the
boiler has a combustion chamber which is lined with fire bricks. Smoke or fire tubes are provided
with combustion chamber. These tubes are equal in length and arranged in a group with wide
space in between them.
The ends of these smoke tubes are fitted in the smoke box. The chimney is provided at the top of
the smoke box for discharge of the gases to the atmosphere. The furnace is surrounded by water on
all sides except at the opening for the fire door and the combustion chamber. The smoke tubes are
also completely surrounded by water.
Different boiler mountings and accessories are located at their proper place.
WORKING:

The hot gas produced from the burning of the fuel on the grate rises up through the flue pipe and
reaches the combustion chamber. The flue gases from the combustion pass through the fire tubes
and the smoke box and finally are discharged through the chimney. The flue gases during their
travel from fire box to the chimney gives heat to the surrounding water to generate steam.

SPECIFICATION OF COCHRAN BOILER:

Diameter of the drum → 0.9 m to 2.75 m

Steam pressure → 6.5 bar up to 15 bar
Heating surface → 120m2
Maximum evaporative capacity → 4000 Kg/hr of steam
Height of the shell → 5.79m
No of tubes → 165
External diameter of flue tube → 62.5mm
Efficiency → 70 to 75%
Fig. Cochran boiler
 EXPERIMENT NO: 5
AIM: To study the working and construction details of Babcock & Wilcox Boiler
APPARATUS: - Model of Babcock and Wilcox boiler
THEORY:-
Babcock and Wilcox boiler is a horizontal shell, multitubular, water tube, externally
fired, natural circulation boiler.
CONSTRUCTION:

Figure shows the details of a Babcock and Wilcox water tube boiler. It consists of a drum
mounted at the top and connected by upper header and down take header. A large Number of
water tubes connect the uptake and down take headers. The water tubes are inclined at an angle of
5 to 15 degrees to promote water circulation. The heating surface of the unit is the outer surface of
the tubes and half of the cylindrical surface of the water drum which is exposed to flue gases.
Below the uptake header the furnace of the boiler is arranged. The coal is fed to the chain grate
stoker through the fire door. There is a bridge wall deflector which deflects the combustion gases
upwards. Baffles are arranged across the water tubes to act as deflectors for the flue gases and to
provide them with gas passes. Here, two baffles are arranged which provide three passes of the
flue gases. A chimney is provided for the exit of the gases. A damper is placed at the inlet of the
chimney to regulate the draught. There are superheating tubes for producing superheated steam.
Connections are provided for other mounting and accessories.
WORKING:

The hot combustion gases produced by burning of fuel on the grater rise upwards and are deflected
by the bridge wall deflector to pass over the front portion of water tubes and drum. By this way
they complete the first pass. With the provision of baffles they are deflected downwards and
complete the second pass. Again, with the provision of baffles they rise upwards and complete the
third pass and finally come out through the chimney. During their travel they give heat to water
and steam is formed. The flow path of the combustion gases is shown by the arrows outside the
tubes. The circulation of water in the boiler is due to natural circulation set-up by Convective
currents (due to gravity). Feed water is supplied by a feed check valve. The hottest water and stem
rise from the tubes to the uptake header and then through the riser it enters the boiler drum. The
steam vapors escape through the upper half of the drum. The cold water flows from the drum to
the rear header and thus the cycle is completed.
To get superheated steam, the steam accumulated in the steam space is allowed to enter into the
super heater tubes which are placed above the water tubes. The flue gases passing over the flue
tubes
produce superheated steam. The steam thus superheated is finally supplied to the user through a
steam stop valve.
SPECIFICATION OF BABCOCK AND WILCOX BOILER:
Diameter of the drum → 1.22 m to
1.83 m Length of the drum → 6.096 to
9.144 m Size of water tubes → 7.62 to
10.16 cm
Size of super heater tube → 3.84 to n5.71
cm Working pressure → 100bar
Steaming capacity →
40,000Kg/hr (Maximum)
Efficiency → 60 to 80%

Fig. Babcock and Wilcox boiler

 Experiment No: 6

AIM: - To study the working and function of mountings and accessories in boilers

APPARATUS: - Model of Babcock and Wilcox boiler

THEORY:-

BOILER MOUNTINGS:

The components which are fitted on the surface of the boiler for complete safety and control of
steam generation process are known as boiler mountings. The following are the various important
mountings of a boiler.
1. Pressure Gauge- It is usually mounted on the front top of the boiler shell, to show the pressure
of the steam. Its dial is graduated to read the pressure in Kilograms per sq. centimeter. Bourdon ’ s
pressure gauge is commonly used as shown in Fig.

2. Safety Valves- They are needed to blow off the steam when pressure of the steam in the boiler
exceeds the working pressure. These are placed on the top of the boiler. There are four types of
safety valves:
i. Dead weight safety valve
ii. Lever safety valve.

iii. Spring loaded safety valve.

Spring loaded safety valve- A spring loaded safety valve is mainly used for locomotives and
marine boilers. In this type the valve is loaded by means of a spring, instead of dead weight. It
consists of two valves, resting on their seats. Valve seats are mounted on the upper ends of two
hallow valve chests, which are connected by a bridge.
3. Feed Check Valve- The function of the feed check valve is to allow the supply of water
to the boiler at high pressure continuously and to prevent the back flow the boiler. Feed check
valve is fitted to the shell slightly below the normal water level of the boiler.
4. Fusible Plug- It is fitted to the crown plate of the furnace of the fire. The function of
fusible plug is to extinguish the fire in the fire box, when water level in the boiler comes down
the limit and it prevents from blasting the boiler, copper material melting the tube and
overheating the fire-box crown plate.

5. Blow Off Cock- It is fitted to the bottom of a boiler drum and consists of a conical plug
fitted to body or casing. The casing is packed, with asbestos packing, in groves round the top
and bottom of the plug. Blow off cock has to principle function are:
1. To empty the boiler whenever required.
2. To discharge the mud, scale or sedimentation which are accumulated at
the bottom of the boiler.
6. Water Level Indicator- It is an important fitting, which indicates the water level
inside the boiler to an observer. It is a safety device, up on which the correct working of the
boiler depends. This fitting may be seen in froth of the boiler, and are generally two in number.
The upper end of the valve opens in steam space while the lower end opens in the water. The
casting are flanged and bolted to the boiler. It has three cocks; two of them control the passage
between the boiler and glass tube, while the third one (the drain cock) remains closed.

7. Steam Stop Valve- A valve placed directly on a boiler shell and connected to the
steam pipe which carries steam to the engine or turbine is called stop valve or junction valve.
The principal functions of a stop valve are:
1. To control the flow of steam from the boiler to the main steam pipe.
2. To shut off the steam completely when required.
The body of the stop valve is made of cast iron or cast steel. The valve seat and the nut,
through which the valve spindle works, are made of brass or gun metal.
Boiler Accessories:

The appliances installed to increase the efficiency of the boiler are known as the boiler

1. Economizer- Economizer is a one type of heat exchange which exchanges the some
parts of the waste heat of flue gas to the feed water. It is placed between the exit of the furnace
and entry into the chimney. If economizer is used before feed pump it limits the temperature
rise of water. It consists of vertical cast iron tubes attached with scraper. The function of scraper
is to remove the root deposited on the tube, mechanically.

Green Economizer

2. Steam Injector- An injector is a device which is used to lift and force water into a
boiler i.e. operating at high pressure. It consists of a group of nozzles, so arranged that steam
expanding in these nozzles imparts its kinetic energy to a mass of water.
3. Super Heater- An element of steam generating unit in which the steam is super heated,
is known is super heater. A super heater is used to increase the temperature of saturated steam
at constant pressure. It is usually placed in the path of hot flue gases and heat of the flue gases
is first used to superheated the steam as shown in figure. Steam consumption of turbine is
reduced by about 1% for each 5.5°C of superheated.

4. Feed Pump- The function of the feed pump is to pump the feed water to the boiler. The
pumps may be rotary or reciprocating. They are driven by small steam turbine or by electric
motor and are used when large quantity of water is to be supplied to boiler. The reciprocating
pumps may be single or double acting. cylinder is directly connected to the rod or to the piston
of the water cylinder.
5. Air Pre-heater- The function of air pre-heater is to increase the temperature of air
before it enters the furnace. It is installed between the economizer and the chimney. The
preheated air gives higher furnace temperature which results in more heat transfer to the water
and reduces the fuel consumption. There are three types of pre-heaters:
1. Tubular type 2. Plate type 3. Regenerative type

Indian Boiler Regulations:

Indian Boiler Regulations are the standards in respect of materials, design and construction,
inspection and testing of boilers and boiler components for compliance by the manufacturer's
and users of boilers in the country. These regulations are being updated regularly by amending
them in line with fast changes in boiler technology by the Central Boilers Board. With the
globalization of Indian economy and the competition it is facing with the foreign companies, it
is prudent to impart the latest information about the international standards and technology
without loss of time. Act, 1937. A Board called the Central Boilers Board was accordingly
constituted in the year 1937.
Questions

1. Write the name of different components of Cochran boiler.

2. Write the name of different mountings of Cochran boiler.
3. Write the name of different accessories of Cochran boiler.
4. Categorize Cochran boiler on different basis.
5. What is the working pressure range of Babcock and Wilcox boiler?
6. Write the name of different components of Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
7. Write the name of different mountings of Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
8. Write the name of different accessories of Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
9. Categorize Babcock and Wilcox boiler on different basis.
10. What do you understand by boiler mountings?
11. What do you understand by boiler accessories?
12. Write the name of material used for making fusible plug.
 EXPERIMENT-7

AIM- To study the principle and working of Two Stroke Diesel Engine

INTRODUCTION:
The fuel is supplied with the help of fuel injection pump and the injection to the cylinder.
The working of diesel engine is similar to two stroke S.I Engine except that only air is
induced into the crank case in case of C.I Engine in place of mixture of fuel and air.

MAIN PARTS OF THE C.I ENGINE:

1) Cylinder-
It is hollow cylinder, one side of which is closed by cylinder head and is made of cast
iron. Cylinder head usually contains both the valves and fuel injector or Spark Plug.
The internal diameter of cylinder is called Bore.
2) Piston-
The Piston is made of cylindrical casting of iron or aluminium alloy. The main
function of the piston is to transmit the force created by combustion products to the
connecting rod.
3) Piston Rings-
It is made of grey cast iron.
4) Connecting Rod-
The function of connecting rod is to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston
into rotary motion of crankshaft. It is made of forged steel.
5) Crank shaft-
It controls the motion of piston and is made of forged alloy steel or carbon’s steel.

WORKING OF THE C.I ENGINE:

The fuel is supplied with the help of fuel injection pump and the injector to the
cylinder. The working of diesel engine is similar to two stroke S.I Engine except that
only air is induced into the crank case in case of C.I Engine in place of mixture of
fuel and air. Consider the piston at T.D.C when piston moves down, the hot gases
expand. During its downward motion, the piston firstly uncovers the exhaust port and
a little later it uncovers the transfer port.
 The air compressed during the previous stroke in the crankcase is transferred into
the cylinder via the transfer port. This incoming air pushes out the burnt gases while
passing over the deflection. This process of sweeping out the burnt gases is called
Scavenging
 The piston moves upwards i.e. from B.D.C to T.D.C. It first closes the transferport
and a little later the exhaust port.
 The air transfer earlier into the cylinder is now compressed with further movement
of piston upwards.
 Before the end of compression stroke, the fuel is injected and the atomized fuel
burns due to high temperature of air called Auto-ignition.
 The resultant hot gases will again expand, thus completing a cycle.

APPLICATIONS:

1. I.C Engines are used in all road vehicles

2. I.C Engines are widely used in rail road, aviation, marine etc.
3. I.C Engines are extensively used in lawn movers, motor boats, concrete
mixing equipment etc.
 EXPERIMENT-8

AIM- To Study and sketch about the principle and working of two stroke I.C. Engine or
Petrol Engine

INTRODUCTION:

The internal combustion engine is a heat engine in which the energy of fuel air mixture is
released by combustion in the engine cylinder itself. The heat energy increases the pressure
and temperature of the cylinder gas and subsequent expansion of the gas converts the heat
energy into mechanical work.

MAIN PARTS OF THE I.C ENGINE OR PETROL ENGINE

1) Cylinder:
It is hollow cylinder, one side of which is closed by cylinder head and is made of cast
iron. The fuel is burnt inside of the cylinder and power is developed due to reciprocating
motion of the piston.
2) Piston:
The piston is made of cylindrical casting of iron or aluminium alloy. The piston is
accurately machined to running fit in the cylinder bore and is provided with several
grooves into which piston rings are fitted.
3) Piston Rings:
The piston is made of cylindrical casting of iron or aluminium alloy. The function of the
piston rings is to prevent any leakage of gas past the piston and to prevent the wear of the
piston.
4) Connecting Rod:
The Connecting Rod connects the piston and crank pin. The function of connecting rod is
to convert the reciprocating motion off the piston into rotary motion of crankshaft.
5) Crank Shaft:
The crankshaft is the principle rotating part of the engine. It serves to convert the forces
applied by the connecting rod into rotational force.

WORKING OF TWO STROKE PETROL ENGINE:

In this type of engine the valves of the four stroke engine are replaced by
ports which are three in number namely, transfer port, inlet or induction port and exhaust
port.
When the piston moves from TDC to BDC, the burnt gases expand and develop the
motive power. When the piston moves downwards during its expansion stroke, the piston
first covers the inlet port and compresses the fresh charge held in the crank case. After
 the completion of about 80% expansion stroke, the piston uncovers the exhaust port and
some of the products of combustion escape to atmosphere.
On further motion of the piston, the piston uncovers the transfer port and allows
the slightly compressed charge from the crank case to be admitted into the cylinder via
the transfer port.
The top of the piston usually has a deflector. The fresh charge sweeps
out the remainder of the burnt gases while passing over the deflector. During the upward
motion of the piston from BDC to TDC, the piston first uncovers the inlet port allowing
the fresh charge to be admitted into the crank case due to the partial vacuum created in
the crank case & then it uncovers the transfer and exhaust ports. The cycle is now again
repeated.

1.IGNITION OR INDUCTION:
The piston is almost at the T.D.C position when the air or mixture of air and fuel is in
compressed form. In Petrol Engine Spark occurs and ignition takes place. But in case
of Diesel Engine, the fuel is injected and combustion takes place automatically.

2.EXPANSION AND PARTIAL COMPRESSION:

Due to combustion of the charge, the pressure increases which pushes the piston
down, the expansion of gas takes place and work is done.

3.EXHAUST AND TRANSFERENCE:

After completing of about 4/5th of the power, the exhaust port is uncovered by the
piston and the products of combustion starts leaving the cylinder through the exhaust
port. When the piston is approaching at the B.D.C position, the exhaust port is still
open and transfer port is uncovered by the piston. As soon as the piston reaches
B.D.C, it moves upward. In this position both inlet port and exhaust port are closed
and the compression of the charge begins in the cylinder till the piston reaches at
T.D.C. Thus during the two stroke of the piston, there is one power stroke.
 APPLICATIONS:
1 I.C Engines are used in all road vehicles
2.I.C Engines are widely used in rail road, aviation, marine etc.
3. I.C Engines are extensively used in lawn movers, motor boats, concrete
mixing equipment etc.
 EXPERIMENT-9

AIM- To Study and sketch about the principle of working of four stroke I.C. Engine or Petrol
Engine and Diesel Engine

INTRODUCTION:

The internal combustion engine is a heat engine in which the energy of fuel air mixture is
released by combustion in the engine cylinder itself. The heat energy increases the pressure and
temperature of the cylinder gas and subsequent expansion of the gas converts the heat energy
into mechanical work.

MAIN PARTS OF THE I.C ENGINE OR PETROL ENGINE

1) Cylinder:
It is hollow cylinder, one side of which is closed by cylinder head and is made of cast
iron. The fuel is burnt inside of the cylinder and power is developed due to reciprocating
motion of the piston. Cylinder head usually contains both the valves and fuel injector or
spark plug. The internal diameter of cylinder is called Bore.

2) Piston:
The piston is made of cylindrical casting of iron or aluminium alloy. The piston is
accurately machined to running fit in the cylinder bore and is provided with several
grooves into which piston rings are fitted. The main function of piston is to transmit the
force created by combustion products to the connecting rod.

3) Piston Rings:
The piston is made of cylindrical casting of iron or aluminium alloy. The function of the
piston rings is to prevent any leakage of gas past the piston and to prevent the wear of the
piston.

4) Connecting Rod:
The Connecting Rod connects the piston and crank pin. The function of connecting rod is
to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of crankshaft. It is
made up of forged steel.
5) Crank Shaft:
The crankshaft is the principle rotating part of the engine. It serves to convert the forces
applied by the connecting rod into rotational force. It controls the motion of piston and is
made of forged alloy steel or carbon steel.

6) Valves:
There are two valves for every cylinder. One is the inlet valve which admits air or
mixture of air and fuel in the suction stroke. The other is the exhaust valve through which
the product of combustion after doing work on the piston escapes to the atmosphere.

7) Cams and Camshaft:

Each valve requires a cam to open and close it, at the proper point in engine cycle. The
cams are mounted on a shaft known as camshaft, which is driven by crank shaft through
gears.

8) Crankcase:
The crankcase holds together the cylinder, piston and crankshaft.

9) Carburetor:
It is used in petrol engines to atomize, vaporize and mixing the fuel with air in required
proportion at all loads and speed before entering to the engine cylinder.

10) Fuel Pump and Injector Unit:

It is used in diesel engine to supply the fuel under high pressure to atomizer or injector
which consists of one or more orifices through which the fuel is sprayed into cylinder.

11) Spark Plug:

It petrol engine a spark plug is located at the top of cylinder and initiates combustion.

12) Flywheel:
It is heavy wheel mounted on the crankshaft to minimize the cyclic variations in speed
the turning moment becomes uniform at the crankshaft.
WORKING OF FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE:
Petrol Engine operates on a four stroke cycle.

1. INTAKE OR SUCTION STROKE:

During suction stroke intake valve is opened and the exhaust valve is closed and the piston
moves downward, due to rotation of crankshaft either getting energy from the flywheel or
from a motor starter.

2. COMPRESSION STROKE:
During this stroke both the valve are closed and piston moves from B.D.C to D.C. The air
is compressed upto a compression ratio. There is reduction of volume of air or charge which
results in an increase of pressure and the temperature of the cylinder contents. In petrol
engines the compression ratiovaries from 5 to 10.5 and pressure and temperature at the end
of compression are7 to 14 bars and 250°C to 500°C respectively.
For Diesel engines the compressionratio is 12 to 20 and the pressure and temperature at the
end of compression are 28to 59 bars and 600°C to 700°C respectively.

3. EXPANSION OR POWER STROKE:

During this stroke both valves are closed. The power stroke includes combustion of fuel and
expansion of the products of the combustion. The combustion starts at the end of the
compression stroke when piston is approaching to T.D.C. In petrol engine, a spark plug
initiates the combustion. During combustion temperature andpressure of the gas is increased.
The volume of gas however remains constant during combustion.
In Diesel Engines, one or more jets of fuel, compressed to a pressure of 105 to 210 bar by an
injector pump are injected into the combustion chamber by a fuel nozzle at the end of
compression stroke. The injected fuel is vaporized and is raised to self ignition temperature.
The combustion then starts automatically and there is sudden rise of temperature at constant
pressure. The high pressure and the high temperature of the product of combustion, thus
obtained push the piston outward from T.D.C TO B.D.C position. This reciprocating motion
of the piston is converted into the rotary motion by crankshaft, connecting rod and crank
mechanism.
 4. EXHAUST STROKE
When about 7/8th of the power stroke has been completed, the exhaust valve begins
to open and the inlet valve remains closed. The products of combustion
areexhausted into atmosphere when the piston moves from B.D.C to T.D.C
position. During this process the pressure is slightly more than atmospheric
pressure when the piston is approaching T.D.C, the exhaust valve closes and some
of the rest burnt gases are left in clearance space. At the end of exhaust stroke,
the inletvalve opens and the cylinder is ready to receive the fresh charge to begin a
newcycle.

APPLICATIONS:

1. I.C Engines are used in all road vehicles.

2. I.C Engines are widely used in rail road, aviation, marine etc.
3. I.C Engines are extensively used in lawn movers, motor boats, concrete-mixing
equipment etc.
 Experiment No.10
Aim: Introduction to Lathe Machine and various machining processes performed on lathe
machine

Machine Tool:

“A machine, which performs the material removal operations with tools, to produce desired
shape and size of the workpiece is known as machine tool".

Types of Machine Tools:

1. Lathe
2. Shaping machine
3. Drilling machine
4. Milling machine
5. Grinding machine
6. Slotting machine
7. Planer machine

Lathe:

It is a general purpose machine tool , which removes excess material from the work piece, in the
form of chips, by rotating the work piece against a single point cutting tool.

The main function of a lathe is to remove metal from a work piece to give the required shape and
size by holding the work securely and rigidly on the machine and then turning it against cutting
tool which will remove metal from the work in the form of chips. The most common and widely
used is the center lathe for preparing of various turning operation.

A lathe basically consists of a bed to provide support a Headstock, a cross slide to traverse the
tool, a tool post mounted on the cross slide. The spindle is drive by a electric motor through a
gear box to obtain a range of speeds, The carriage moves on the bed guide ways parallel to the
work piece and the cross slide provides the transverse motion. A feed shaft and lead screw are
also provided to power the carriage for auto movement and for cutting the thread respectively.

Practical applications to make use of a lathe:

 Cylindrical shaft, stepped shaft, eccentric shaft, crankshaft.

 Bolt and nuts, bushes, machine handles, knobs and pulleys etc.
Main parts of lathe and description:

Figure 1: Parts of Lathe machine

Sl. No. Parts Description

Head stock Head stock is one type of gear box & it is the heart of the
machine, which gives various speeds by means of gear
1 arrangement. The gear change lever is given in the head
stock body to change the speed.

2 Chuck Plate Chuck plate is provided to mount the chuck on it.

3 Tool Post Tool post is mounted on the compound slide, which is used
to hold the tools.

4 Compound Compound slide is used to give angular & small longitudinal

motion to the tool.
Slide
5 Saddle & Cross slide is mounted on the saddle. Cross slide give

Cross Slide transverse motion whereas saddle gives longitudinal motion.

6 Tail Stock Tail stock is used to hold the job for between centre turning
Lead Screw Lead screw is used for threading operation. Which is also
7 known as thread shaft.
 Apron Apron is a gear box which gives automatic feed to the
8
carriage.
9 Feed Shaft Feed shaft is used for auto feeding.
Norton gear Norton gear box is used to obtained metric as well as BSW
10 thread in various pitch for threading operation.
box
Tray Tray is provided to collect the cutting fluid & chip when
11
machine is in running condition.
Side Cover Side cover is provided in the back side of the machine for
12 protection of gear train & for safety purpose.

Figure 2: Schematic diagram of Lathe Machine

Lathe operations:

(a) Plain turning: The plain turning operation involves removal of metal diametrically from the
raw material by feeding the tool parallel to the axis of the work to bring the work to required size.
(b)Taper turning: Taper is a gradual increase or decrease in diameter along the length of the job.

(c) Facing: Facing is the operation of machining from the work-face by feeding the tool at right
angles to the work axis at end of a work piece to produce flat surface.

(d) Thread cutting on lathe by using single point cutting tool: The principle of thread cutting
is to produce helical groove on a cylindrical or conical surface by rotating the job at a constant
speed and moving the tool longitudinally at the rate equal to pitch of the thread per revolution of
the job.

(e) Knurling: Knurling is the operation of producing straight lined diamond shaped or cross
lined pattern on a cylindrical external surface by pressing a tool called knurling tool. Knurling is
not cutting operation, but it is a forming operation.

(f) Drilling: Drilling is an Operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a work piece. Workpiece
is held in the chuck and the drill is held in the tailstock. Drilling is accomplished on a lathe by
feeding the stationary drill into the rotating workpiece

(g) Chamfering: to reduce (a square edge on an object) to a sloping edge. Chamfering is

the operation of bevelling the extreme end of the work piece. Chamfering removes the burrs and
sharp edges, and thus makes the handling safe.

(a) (b)
(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

Figure 3: Operations on Lathe Machine