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Fatigue

The document discusses fatigue failure in structural and machine elements subjected to cyclic loading, highlighting that repeated loads can lead to fracture even if they do not cause immediate failure. It explains the concepts of low-cycle and high-cycle fatigue, the significance of stress cycles, and the S-N curve for estimating fatigue life. Additionally, it emphasizes factors influencing fatigue life, such as surface finish and environmental conditions, and provides examples of fatigue failure incidents.

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Thangavadivel Kirsand
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16 views29 pages

Fatigue

The document discusses fatigue failure in structural and machine elements subjected to cyclic loading, highlighting that repeated loads can lead to fracture even if they do not cause immediate failure. It explains the concepts of low-cycle and high-cycle fatigue, the significance of stress cycles, and the S-N curve for estimating fatigue life. Additionally, it emphasizes factors influencing fatigue life, such as surface finish and environmental conditions, and provides examples of fatigue failure incidents.

Uploaded by

Thangavadivel Kirsand
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Fatigue Failure

Introduction to Fatigue
Vast majority of structural and machine
elements are subjected to combined (bending,
torsion, and axial loading) repeated or
fluctuating loading for many cycles, termed
cyclic loading.

E.g.
buildings bridges (under earthquake, and
wind-induced forces), crankshafts, propeller
shafts aircraft wings, steam or gas turbine
blades, ships, offshore platforms, etc)
It is shown by experimental studies, the
loads do not cause fracture in a single
application can result in fracture when
applied repeatedly.

The phenomenon of fracture under cyclic


loading is referred to as fatigue.
Stress
σ tension
+

Time (t)
0
compression
-
That’s, the machine components or structural
members subjected to cyclic, fluctuating, or
alternating stresses which are below the
ultimate tensile strength or even the yield
strength, may nevertheless show diminished
strength and ductility.

Low-cycle fatigue; the fracture of material


occurs after a few cycles.

High-cycle fatigue; the fracture occurs after


millions of cycles.
Forms of stress cycle
Throughout the working life of a component
subjected to cyclical stress the magnitude of the
upper and lower limits of cycles may vary
considerably. Generally, it is assumed that the
stress cycle is ‘sinusoidal’ having constant upper
and lower limits, throughout the life.
σ
σmax
σamp
σmean Δσ Time (t)
0
σmin (or no. of
cycles N)

Constant-amplitude cyclic loading


In constant-amplitude cyclic loading, as
shown,

Δσ = stress range = σmax- σmin


(constant throughout the entire
loading history.)

Stress amplitude,
σamp= (σmax- σmin)/2 = S

remains constant.

Stress ratio R = (σmin/ σmax)


The S-N curve
This curve can be used to estimate the fatigue
life for the specific stress range.

The no. of loading cycles (N) required to cause


the failure of a specimen through repeated
successive loadings and reverse loadings may
be determined experimentally for any given
stress range.

As the magnitude of S is reduced, the no. of


cycles required to cause rupture increases, until
a stress, known as ‘endurance limit’, is reached.
The Endurance Limit is the stress range for which
failure does not occur, even for an infinitely large
number of loading cycles. For low-carbon steel, such
as structural steel, the endurance limit is about one-
half of the ultimate strength of the material.

Stress S
range
Aluminum alloy

Structural steel
N
(No. of cycles
Equation of the fatigue line to failure)
S = a Nb
Fatigue Limit

For nonferrous metals, (Al, Cu alloys) a typical


S-N curve shows that the stress at failure
continues to decrease as the no. of loading
cycles is increased. For such metals, one
defines the ‘fatigue limit’ as the stress
corresponding to failure after a specified no.
of loading cycles, such as 500 millions.
The Mechanisms of fatigue failure
Fatigue failure starts on a microscopic scale as a
minute crack or defect in the material and this
gradually grows under the action of the stress
fluctuations until-complete fracture occurs.

Fatigue-initiation life; the no. of cycles required to


initiate a fatigue crack, N1

Fatigue-propagation life; the period of fatigue-crack


growth from initiation to failure, N2
Total fatigue life = N1+ N2.
Crank shaft
Gear tooth
failure
For a given member, total fatigue life is strongly
influenced by;

• Quality of the surface finish,

• Possible residual stress within the member,

• Presence of stress concentrations,

• Chemical nature of environment, and

• Material itself.
Examination of test specimens, which have failed in
fatigue shows that the failure was initiated at a
microscopic crack or at some similar imperfection.

At each loading, the crack was very slightly enlarged.


During successive loading cycles, the crack propagated
through the material until the amount of undamaged
material was insufficient to carry the maximum load,
and an abrupt, brittle failure occurred.
Because fatigue failure may be initiated at any
crack or imperfection, the surface condition of a
specimen has an important effect on the value
of the endurance limit.

This endurance limit is higher for machined and


polished specimens than for rolled or forged
components, or for corroded components.

*In applications in or near sea water (similar


applications), a reduction up to 50% in the endurance
limit may be expected.
It’s been estimated that at least 75% of all
machine and structural failures have been
caused by some form of fatigue.

High-endurance fatigue
relates to endurances about 104 cycles to
infinity (or 50x106 in terms of laboratory tests)
Low-endurance fatigue;

low cycle fatigue, for low-endurance region <3000 cycles.

Low cycles to failure does not necessarily mean a short


lifetime, because it is a function of cycle frequency.

Hence an aircraft fuselage is only pressurized once every flight and


so it may take years to accumulate 1000 cycles and a pressure
vessel may work for 25 years before achieving 1000 cycles of
cleaning and inspection.
Hawaii, Aloha Flight 243, a Boeing 737, an upper part of the
plane's cabin area rips off in mid-flight.
Metal fatigue was the cause of the failure.
Hawaii, Aloha Flight 243, a Boeing 737, an upper part of the
plane's cabin area rips off in mid-flight.
Metal fatigue was the cause of the failure.
In the members subjected to relatively high cyclic
loads (e.g. thermal loading, piping subjected to large
cyclic deformations, structures during an earthquake,
nuclear pressure-vessel components)

significant amount of plastic strain are induced


during each cycle.

Thus, short lives resulting in a small number of


cycles.
For low cycle fatigue

In low cycle fatigue, strain amplitude becomes the


controlling parameter

log pl plastic = a N b

log N

Low cycle fatigue plot of plastic strain amplitude versus number of


reversals to failure.
Problem 1
A solid shaft of 30 mm diameter is subjected to a cyclic bending
moment which varies from +450Nm to -450 Nm.

Estimate the fatigue life of this shaft using the data given in the
graph of stress amplitude σamp vs. number of cycles to fatigue
fracture N (both on log scales) below.

Log10 σamp (σamp in MN/m2)

Log10 400
Log10 300

Log10 110

3 6 Log10 N (N in cycles)
Problem 2
A mild steel solid shaft is subjected to a cyclic torque which
varies from +1 kNm to -1 kNm.
Use the data given in the graph of stress amplitude σamp vs.
number of cycles to fatigue fracture N (on a log scale) in the
figure to estimate a suitable diameter for the shaft to have a
fatigue life of 105 cycles.

The cyclic torque is now reduced to ±500 Nm. Comment on the


life span of the shaft with the diameter found in the previous part.
σamp
(MN/m2)

400
300
200
100
0 Log10 (N)
4 5 6 7
Problem 3
A solid cylindrical machine component is subjected to a cyclic
bending moment fluctuating between -300 Nm (sagging) and
+300 Nm (hogging) causing a constant-amplitude cyclic loading
having equal maximum amplitudes in tension and compression.
The component is designed to have a fatigue life of 108 cycles.

If the machine component is made of structural steel, estimate a


suitable minimum diameter for the component using the data
given in the graph below .

What would be the suitable minimum diameter of the component


if it was made of an aluminium alloy? Use the data given in the
same graph.
Stress amplitude
σamp (MN/m2)

300

250 Structural steel

200

150

100 Aluminium alloy


50

5 6 7 8 9
Log10N
(N = Number of cycles to failure)

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