FUNGI

They are eukaryotic, they have nuclear membrane, they do not have chlorophyll hence they are saprophytic
organisms, they feed on dead organic matter. Fungi are formed on body normal flora, they are pathogenic in nature,
some fungi are facultative able to utilize both live and dead organic matter, some are obligate only survive on living
cells hence are pathogenic, they are widely distributed and some are terrestrial organism while some are aquatic
organism.
 Medically, fungi are harmful potentially causing disease while some are useful for the production of alcohol and
beverages, bread and antibiotics, disease causing fungi are called IMPERFECTI, Fungi are used for various
molecular biological application
i. Vegetative hyphae: they penetrates the media of which the mycelium is growing and are responsible for
absorption of nutrient.
ii. Aerial hyphae: they project from the surface of the solid growth media up to the air and bear reproductive
cells (spores which are usually asexual spores). Both sexual and asexual spores can develop into a new
hypha or mycelium.
iii. Coenocytic hyphae: These are hyphae that have cytoplasm streaming through uninterruoted by cross walls.
iv. Septate hyphae: These are hyphae that have cross walls called septa singular septum with either a single or
multi pore that permit cytoplasmic streaming from one portion to the thallus to another.
v. Dimorphism: This is the state of fungi existing in two forms. Most fungi especially the pathogenic ones in
humans and animals are dimorphic. Dimorphism is associates with changes in cell wall composition which
may result in increased pathogenicity. Dimorphic fungi can change from yeast form in the animal to
mold/mycelia form in the external environment in response to changes in various environmental factors
such as nutrients, temperature etc. This change is referred to as YM shift. Examples of dimorphic fungi are
Candida albicans and Histoplasma capsulatum.
The Cell wall: It gives the thallus rigidity and structure enabling constant passage of nutrients to the cytoplasm and
waste matter into the environment. The wall is composed of 80-90% carbohydrate the rest being protein and lipid
and in some cases sterols. The main structural polysaccharide includes cellulose, chitin 1-9%, mannan 15-23% and
glucan 50-60%. The chemical composition of a fungal cell wall varies between species and with the age and
morphology of the fungus. Most fungi have their polysaccharides linked to protein enzymes which are important
during cell division and in degrading substrates before passage across the cell membrane into the cytoplasm.
The cell membrane: It is phospholipid bilayer. They are composed of phospholipids, lipids, protein, 6% sterols,
traces of nucleotides and the carbohydrate glucan and mannan. Major proportion of the fungal lipids occurs in
membrane compartments although some can be found as triglyceride droplets in the cytoplasms. Membrane sterols
in moulds and yeasts account for the specific toxicity of polyene antibiotics e.g amphotericin B against superficial
infections in humans.
The cytoplasm: Fungi have a eukaryotic cytoplasmic composition. The cytoplasm is the content of a cell enclosed
within the plasma membrane. The cytoplasm is the site where most cellular activities occur such as many metabolic
pathways and processes such as cell division.

NUTRITION AND METABOLISM IN FUNGI

They grow best in dark moist habitats but are formed wherever organic matter is available. They are mostly
saprophytes getting their nutrients from dead organic material. They release hydrolytic exoenzymes that digest
external substrates and then absorb soluble products. They are chemoorganoheterotrophs using organic compounds
as a source of carbon, electrons and energy. The primary storage polysaccharide in fungi is glycogen. Most fungi utilize
carbohydrate preferably glucose/maltose and nitrogenous compounds to synthesize their own amino acids and
proteins. Usually fungi are aerobic although some years are facultatively anaerobic and can obtain energy by
fermentation e.g in the production of ethyl alcohol from glucose. Obligately anaerobic fungi are found in the rumen of
cattle.
REPRODUCTION IN FUNGI
Asexual reproduction: The most common procedure of asexual reproduction is usually accomplished by the help of
spores. Asexual pore formation occurs in an individual fungus through mitosis and subsequent cell division.
Types of Asexual Spores
Arthroconidia/arthrospores: Theses are spores produced when a hypha fragment through the splitting of the cell
wall/sputum to form cells that behaves as spores. The cells are referred to as arthroconidia/arthrospores.
Chalamydospores: These are spores produced by cells surrounded by a thick wall before separation i.e the hypha
fragment through the splitting of the cell wall/sputum.
Sporangiospores: These are spores that develop in a sac-sporangium plural sporangia at the hyphal tip.
Conidiospores: These spores are not enclosed in a but are produced at the tip or sides of the hypha.
Blastospores: These are spores produced from a vegetative mother cell by budding
Zoospores: This is the simplest form of available fungal asexual spore. It has no rigid cell wall as is duly propelled by
flagella.
Sexual reproduction: Sexual reproduction in fungi is characterized by the union of two compatible nuclei and the
entire phenomenon can be divided into three phases namely:
Phase 1: The union of the gametangia i.e sex organs. It brings the nuclei into close proximity within in the same
protoplast. The phase is referred to as plasmogamy.
Phase 2: It is known as karyogamy which takes place with the fusion of two nuclei leading to the formation of a
zygote.
Phase 3: It is known as meiosis that essentially takes care of the nuclear fusion whereby the actual number of the
chromosomes is distinctly and significantly reduced to its original haploid state. Haploid nuclei are produced.
Characteristics of Fungal division
1. Division zygomycota: It contains the fungi zygomycetes. Most live in decaying plant and animal matter in the
soil and a few are parasites of plants, insects, animals and humans. They have coenocytic hyphae with many
haploid nuclei.
2. Division Ascomycota: It contains the fungi known as ascomycetes commonly known as sac fungi. Most of the
red, brown and blue green moulds that cause food spoilage are ascomycetes. Many types of yeast are
ascomycetes. Many types of yeast are ascomycetes. Many are parasitic on higher plants e.g Claviceps purpurea.
3. Division Basidiomycota: It contains the basidiomycetes commonly known as club fungi e.g. smuts, puffballs,
mushrooms. They have a characteristic structure or cell- the basidium involved in sexual reproduction.
4. Division Chytridiomycota: The simplest of true fungi belong here. They contain the class chytridiomycetes
commonly known as chytrids. They are simple terrestrial and aquatic fungi that reproduce asexually by forming
motile zoospores.
5. Division Deutromycota: When a fungi lacks the sexual phase of reproduction or the sexual phase of
reproduction has not been observed it is placed in this division commonly called the fungi imperfecti or
deutromycetes.
MEDICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF FUNGI
Fungi represent a significant group of pathogens capable of causing a range of diseases in humans under the right set
of conditions. Although the majority of fungi appear to be harmless to humans it is worth bearing in mind that a
normally non-pathogenic fungus can be cause a clinically relevant problem if the immune system is suppressed as a
result of therapy (e.g. for receipt of organ transplant) or disease (e.g. cancer). The most common fungal pathogens of
humans can be divided into three broad classes: yeasts, moulds and dermatophytes. The yeast C. albicans is the most
frequently encountered human fungal pathogen, being responsible for a wide range of superficial and systemic
infections. The superficial infections include oropharyngeal and genital candidosis.
Industrial Importance of Fungi
Fungi for example yeas are useful in fermentation processes in the production of Wines and Beer. They are useful for
production of Bakery products e.g. Baker’s yeast used in Bread making and available commonly as ‘dried yeast’ or
‘compressed yeast’
Fungi e.g yeast are also useful as food supplements as they are rich in Vitamin B, they are useful if the production of
cheese, they play a major role in the commercial production of organic acids e.g citric acid and many antibiotics e.g.
Penicillin and griseofulvin.
Other Importance
They act as decomposers along with bacteria and a few other groups of heterotrophic organisms degrading complex
organic materials in the environment to simple organic compounds and inorganic molecules.
They are major cause of plant and animal diseases, they are useful in diagnosis of plant, animal and human diseases,
they are useful in the treatment of wastes a process referred to as Bioremediation, they are important research tools
in the study of fundamental biological processes.
Medically Important Fungal Pathogens of Humans
 Candida albicans
 Aspergillus fumigatus
 Histoplasma capsulatum
 Crypotococcus neoformans
 Dermatophytes

Parasitology
Man and other living things live in entangling relationship with each other. They don’t exist in an isolated form. They
are independent. Parasitology is the study of parasite belonging to a few group of organisms namely: Helminthes and
protozoa. A parasite is an organism that resides on or in an other organism, the host, in order to find the environment
and nutritional requirement for its own growth and reproduction. Most successful parasite achieved a balance to the
host that allow a survival growth and allows a propagation of both the host and parasite. The degree of dependence of
a parasite on a host varies from one parasite to another. Some parasite can survive without a host for a number of
generation while others can’t. Some parasite develop resistant forms e.g. Cyst which helps them to survive advise
conditions.
Types of Parasite
Endoparasite: They live in the host body, they possess features that enables them to survive, they have special
features that enables them resist or overcome being dislodged, they possessed special features that enables them
feed, they depend on already digest food.
Ectoparasite: They are parasite that lives absolutely on the surface of the body (skin) gaining a few millimeters grasp
on the body