FEG MANDALAY

Institute

Solar Power System

Design Course

References Book

“BUILD YOUR FUTURE

WITH FEG MANDALAY”

09 955 396 720, 09 40 118 4455 No A4, SY Building 30 th Srtreet, (64 x 65)
 solar power system

U Tin Maung Maung

BE (EP), ME (EP) RIT, MBA
PE (Electrical, BS)
Mandalay, 09259426631
 Two basic categories of Solar Energy
1. solar thermal energy systems to
heat water for use in homes, buildings, or
swimming pools.
heat the inside of homes, greenhouses.
heat fluids to high temperatures in solar
thermal power plants.
2. Solar photovoltaic devices, or
solar cells, change sunlight directly into
electricity.
1. Large utility-scale PV installations,
2. Commercial and residential
installations (rooftop, car park or
building integrated)
Advantages of Solar Energy Disadvantages
Renewable Energy source Costly to acquire( initial cost)

Reduces Electricity bills Weather Dependent

Diverse Application and Easy to install Solar Energy storage is expensive

Low maintenance costs Uses a lot of space (not all homes can have solar panels
installed)
Technology Development Not allow conservation areas.

Solar panel can provide you with power for up to 30years

(Adding value to your home)

Creation of Job opportunity

Reducing your carbon footprint and Reducing air and

noise pollution
How Much Power Bill You Can Save Using Solar Energy.

Depends on a variety of factors, such as:

• the size and efficiency of your solar panels
• the amount of sunlight your location receives
• the cost of electricity in your area
• In general, a typical household can save anywhere from 50% to 100%
on their power bills
 What is a Solar Panel?
• Solar Panels are commonly called Photovoltaic Panels (PV Panels)
• Photo means light and voltaic means electricity.
• Photovoltaic panels are made from Silicon which is the same material that
makes up sand.
• Silicon is heated to extremely high temperatures at a factory, and then formed
into very thin layers
• When the sunlight hits the PV panel, it moves around tiny particles of silicon
called electrons.
• The silicon electrons travel though the wires that are built into the PV panel to
create energy.
Photovoltaics (PVs)
• Defined: A material or device that converts photons of light
energy to electrical voltage and current

• an electron in a PV material (semiconductor, such as Si)

Photovoltaics (PVs)
• Si is a semiconductor

• Metals are conductors

• Metals, semiconductors, and insulators have energy bands:

▪ Valence band, forbidden band, and conduction band, forbidden band
▪ Electrons in conduction band contribute to current flow

• With metals, P-N junction can’t form, so free electrons move too randomly

• Insulators require too much energy to add electrons to conduction band

11
 Photovoltaic (PV) Scheme
• Highly purified silicon (Si) from sand, quartz, etc. is “doped” with intentional impurities
at controlled concentrations to produce a p-n junction
• p-n junctions are common and useful: diodes, CCDs, photodiodes, transistors
• A photon incident on the p-n junction liberates an electron
• more photons → more electrons → more current → more power

n-type silicon

p-type silicon
Provide a circuit for the electron flow
• Without a path for the electrons to flow out, charge would build up
and end up canceling electric field
• must provide a way out
• direct through external load
current flow

external load

• PV cell acts like a battery

Spring 2013 14
 PV types
• Single-crystal silicon (monocrystalline)
• 16–18% efficient, typically
• More expensive to make (grown as big crystal)
• Because the cell is composed of a single crystal,
the electrons that generate a flow of electricity have
more room to move.
• Poly-crystalline silicon (multi-crystalline)
• 12–14% efficient, slowly improving
• cheaper to make (cast in ingots)
• there is to less freedom for the electrons to move.
• Amorphous silicon (non-crystalline)
• 6–8% efficient
• cheapest per Watt
• called “thin film”, easily deposited on a wide
range of surface types
15
PV Modules and Arrays
• One PV cell = ~0.5 V

• Module = 72, 96, or 128 pre-wired cells in a series in a package

• Array=modules wired in series to increase v or in parallel to increase i.

• For array, must optimize modules in series or parallel for max p=vi
• For strings in parallel, total current is sum of currents of each string and
total v is just the v of individual string.
 Design
Sizing components of a solar system
• sufficient to meet the power needs of a client based on weather data,
demand and sizing knowledge.
• time consuming process that can be carried out by specialists
• initial investments is a major component
• Unnecessary large system (Over sizing) has a detrimental effect on the price
of the system
• Under sizing has an effect on supply reliability
Solar Technology: PV
Components
Cell

Panel / Module PV Array

 Components of a rooftop solar PV system
• (i) on- or off-grid option,
• (ii) site analysis
• (iii) solar resource assessment,
• (iv) shading, (If even one photovoltaic cell is shaded, it can impact the
energy generated by its neighbour cells. This is because it acts as a resistor.)
• (v) array configuration,
• (vi) solar PV module selection,
• (vii) mounting system design,
(viii) inverter selection,
• (ix) wiring design
The three classifications of solar installation
• Off-Grid/Stand-Alone systems can be installed anywhere under the sun. This is
also similar to solar streetlights with all components necessary for its full
operation without the grid. Among the three types, this is the most expensive
with all the capacity requirement of the load has to be met by the solar
installation.
• Hybrid System is a practical type of solar installation that has the flexibility of
using the grid whenever it is available and having the solar panels to reduce the
consumption at night. With the battery, the system can provide back-up power
during power outages and can store excess solar generation to be used at night or
during power outages.
• On-Grid System is the cheapest type of solar installation with very few
components. It also has the shortest payback based on the savings on electricity.
However, this type of system needs alternative back-up power during brownouts
and long outages after major disasters before the grid is restored.
 solar site survey
• Gather customer information (the address, how much
• electricity they use,)
• Use satellite or aerial data (the roof’s orientation, slope, and
• shading. house, street, and entry gate)
• Take roof measurements (accurate measurements of the roof’s dimensions.)
• Perform a shade analysis (shading on the roof.)
• Evaluate the electrical system (may need to upgrade the system to ensure it meets
the necessary requirements.)
• Determine the solar panel location and layout ( 1 to 5 )
• Create a system design and proposal
• Provide the homeowner with the proposal
Design: Shading

10% shading of an array

can lead to a 50%
decline in efficiency

Source: Renewable Energy World

 Solar resource assessment
• the availability of solar radiation
resources solar energy technologies
per the SunShot goals.
• collecting meteorological data from
the site such as weather data, the
amount of sunlight received in the
location, wind speed, air
temperature, etc.
• Reflection
• The albedo of Earth's surface (atmosphere,
• Rainfall ocean, land surfaces) determines how
• Local albedo much incoming solar energy, or light, is
immediately reflected back to space.
The additional losses
Due to:
• Sunlight not striking the solar panel straight on (5%)
• Not receiving energy at the maximum power point (10%)
• Dirt on solar panels (5%)
• PV panels aging and below specification (10%)
• Temperature above 25°C (15%)
Energy Audit is Important Before Installing Solar Power

• energy audit is a comprehensive assessment of our home or

business’s energy use, identifying areas where energy is being wasted
and making recommendations for improvements.
• Based on the results of the audit, the energy auditor will prepare a
report that outlines recommendations for energy-saving measures.
• We can determine the correct positioning and capacity of a solar
system, type of solar energy system to install.
• The backup time of solar storage can be gauged with an audit.
 How to measure Power Quality
Electrical Parameters to
analyze power quality.
Current (I), Voltage (V), voltage fluctuations IEC 61000-4-15
Power factor, ( capacitor bank) Disadvantages of low power factor
Active power (kW),
apparent power (demand) (kVA), • I. Large kVA rating of
Energy consumption (kWh),
equipment
Frequency (Hz), • II. Greater conductor size
Harmonics, IEC 61000-4-7 ( caused by nonlinear loads like adjustable • III. Large copper losses
speed drive, electronic devices, and medical test equipment. • IV. Poor voltage regulation
• Effect: overheating cable, and motor; relay trip and incorrect • V. Reduced handling capacity of
measurement of V and I by meters.) system
Transients (V, I, Hz), IEEE 519
Why do we measure power quality?

• power quality measurement is necessary to understand the actual cause

of power quality problems
• to consider and analyze for effective countermeasures.
• Natural phenomena such as lightning strikes, poor load distribution, and
wiring and grounding issues are a few examples of the causes of power
quality problems.
• Inverter-based technology has become more common in recent years, as
have grid-connected electric vehicle chargers and grid-tied renewable
energy sources such as solar and wind power. These make the power
network more complex and have a significant negative impact on power
quality.
• Poor power quality causes trouble in receptacle/transmission equipment
and electronic equipment malfunctions. For example, harmonics
 Energy Audits
• Identify areas of potential energy cost savings and more efficient use.
• Provide recommendations that will enable the design and or expansion of
appropriate energy system solutions at the site.
For example, guide to decide on a larger generator, PV/genset hybrid,
• Which appliances are not functioning well and why? (i.e., electric
refrigerator, air cond: )
Quality of appliances (lamps, refrigerators, etc.)
Generator operation and PV systems performance
To get more safety of operators and materials and life time.
 Do an Energy Audit by Yourself.
• First, find out your energy usage and compare it to the average at
your location.
• Second, identify energy-guzzling appliances by monitoring their
energy usage or using a smart meter.
• Third, upgrade high-usage appliances
• Fourth, optimize your lighting and heating/cooling systems.
• Fifth, install adequate insulation and ventilation to reduce the need
for heating/cooling.
• Finally, check for air leaks and seal them up to prevent heat loss.
Details of existing and future loads
• Lighting
• Medical and lab equipment
• ICT
• Cold chain and refrigeration
• Water purification
• Cooking
• Water heating
• Water supply and feed
• The end result of the calculations on future electrical appliance
for peak energy demand (in kilowatts).
 Electricity Waste
• Evaluate your light usage. You’ve left the house, but your living room lights
are still on. Of all home electricity, 5% is dedicated to lighting. Simply turning
out your lights before leaving a room can help cut costs considerably, so take
note of how many lights you leave on throughout the day. Consider using
timers or automatic lights wherever possible to help prevent waste.
• Assess your light bulbs. Upgrading your lightbulbs can seriously reduce your
electricity use.
• Examine television and computer settings. Most modern entertainment
systems and computers have a sleep function. Be sure to enable these so
your TV and computer turn themselves off when not in use.
• Check for outdated appliances. out-of-date appliances like aging
refrigerators, dryers, aircond, oven, cookers.
• Unplug unnecessary appliances. Unplug stereos, phone chargers, hair dryers,
and fans when they’re not being used to prevent waste.
Danger
Power loss
Waste and danger
Should have drawing
1. Architectural drawings (as built drawing)
2. M&E drawings
3. Lighting circuit drawings (as built drawing)
4. Air conditioning system drawing and design manual (as built drawing)
5. Single line power supply schematic drawings (as built drawing)
6. Electrical energy bill historical data (for at least one year)
7. Load control systems such as sensors, timers, breakers, building
automation system if any and others (as built drawing)
Conducting a Site Assessment
• determine suitable locations for installing inverters, batteries, and
other balance of system components
• illustrate possible layouts and locations for array and equipment,
including existing building or site features
• identify and assess any site-specific safety hazards associated with
installation of the system
• obtain and interpret site solar radiation and temperature data for use
in electrical system calculations
 System Sizing and Design
• Measure the peak load demand and average daily energy use for the purpose of sizing
equipment
• Determine requirements for installing additional subpanels
• Determine the design currents and voltage for any part of a PV system electrical circuit
• Determine the capacity of system conductors, and select appropriate sizes based on
design currents, voltages and safety factors
• Determine appropriate size, ratings, and locations for earthing, surge suppression,
lighting protection.
• Identify a mechanical design, equipment (including fixing and mounting brackets)
• Identify installation plan that is consistent with the environmental, architectural,
structural, code requirements, and other conditions of the site
Energy
• Energy is the amount of electricity used. It is measured in watt-hours (Wh).
in terms of kilowatt-hours (kWh). Where:
• One thousand watt-hours = 1000Wh = 1kWh = One kilowatt-hour
• Energy can be calculated by multiplying the amount of power produced or
used, by the amount of time it is being produced or used.
• Energy = Power x Time
For example:
• Let’s consider you have three devices that each use 100W, and that you
typically run these three devices for 10 hours each day. In a typical day, the
total energy they will use is:
• 3 x 100W x 10 ÷ 1000 = 3000Wh per day (or 3kWh per day)
AC and DC Electricity

• AC (short for Alternating Current) is what is provided by the grid and

supplied to the electrical outlets in our homes. It is used because it is
easy to step up to higher voltages which is required to transmit the
electricity over large distances without high losses.
• DC (short for Direct Current) is used in many electrical devices, such as
computers and mobile phones. Since household sockets provide AC,
most electronic devices need an AC to DC converter to work.
• Solar Panels and batteries produce DC electricity. That is why in a normal
household, we need to install inverters in a solar PV system to convert
the DC into AC. It can then be connected to the existing AC board of the
house so it can either be used by the household or exported into the
electricity grid.
 Finding the number of Panels needed
• To find the peak-watt capacity that will be needed in a system follow these
steps:
• Step 1. Calculate the watt-hours per day for each appliance used.
• Step 2. Add the watt-hours needed for each of the appliances to find the
total watt-hours per day needed by the appliances.
• Step 3. Multiply the total appliance watt-hours per day by 1.3 (30% loses
considered) to find the total watt-hours per day that the panels must provide
• Step 4. Divide the total watt-hours per day by the Panel Generation Factor for
your climate (e.g in average 5 sunshine hours per day)
• Step 5. Divide the total peak-watt capacity by the peak watts of the panels
available to you.
• This will give you the exact number of panels needed.
Temperature coefficient,
• The voltage of a solar panel is not fixed, and will vary depending on
sunlight
• It is also heavily affected by temperature. As the temperature of the
cells in a panel increase, the voltage decreases.
• The amount that the voltage changes with each degree change in
temperature is called temperature coefficient, and can be found on
the solar panel datasheet.
Voc
• Solar Panel open-circuit voltage.
• This is the voltage the solar panel can be expected to show across its
terminals when it is not connected to any other device, under standard
test conditions (STC).
• This value is used in string length calculations.
Vmpp
Solar Panel voltage at the maximum power point. The maximum voltage the
panel will produce at STC when connected to an inverter with maximum
power point tracking (MPPT).
Solar Array Voltage
• When solar panels are connected in series into what are
called strings, their voltages are added together. When they are
connected in parallel, the voltage stays the same.
Isc
• This is the amount of current that can be expected to flow when the
positive and negative leads of the panel are connected together
under standard test conditions.
• It is the maximum current that the panel can be expected to produce.
Impp
The maximum current a solar panel will produce when connected to
an inverter with maximum power point tracking (MPPT).
Calculate Wattage of the Solar Panels

• 1770Wh/day ÷ 3 sun hours/day = 590W

• 590W ÷ 0.8 (system losses) =737.5W
• 737.5/250 = 2.95(3 Solar panels 250watts)
• For the project we would be using 3 panels of 250 Watts each.
 power loads Characteristics

Levels of load current at each distribution board.

• Inductive Motor—starting current
• Resistive load---lamp, heating
• LED lamps
• Active load– Semiconductor like transistors or amplifiers to
supply power
• Passive load---- ( R, L, C)absorb power without active load
Power loading of an installation
Diversity factor / Coincidence factor (ks)
• The determination of ks factors is the responsibility of the designer
(non simultaneous operation of all appliances of a given group)
• ku Utilization factor (e.g. an electric motor is not generally operated at
its full-load capability, etc.)
• Motor-0.75
• Lamp-1
• Socket—depend on users
The values given are based on experience and on records taken from
actual installations.
Diversity factor for an apartment block
Example
A Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) charge controller also works similarly with the PWM
controller but operates on a wider and higher input voltage from the solar modules. A 12V battery
can be charges with 60-cell or 72-cell solar modules using the MPPT charge controller.
Load Calculation

NO LOAD NAME LOAD (W) NO. OF LOAD TOTAL LOAD(W) OPERATION HOURS(h) TOTAL ENERGY(Wh)

•1 LED light 10 5 50 6 300

•2 Tube Light 18 4 72 5 360
•3 Television 40 2 80 10 800
•4 Ceiling Fan 50 4 200 8 1600
•5 Refrigerator 175 1 175 10 1750
TOTAL POWER 577 TOTAL ENERGY 4810Wh
 Solar panel array configuration plan
A solar panel array is a string of solar panels connected in series. To increase the current, N-number of
PV modules are connected in parallel. Such a connection of modules in a series and parallel combination is
known as “Solar Photovoltaic Array” or “PV Module Array”.
technical specifications for a string inverter.
Max input DC voltage
Min input DC voltage
Max input current
PV technical specifications
Short-Circuit Current (ISC):
Open-Circuit Voltage (VOC):
Maximum power point (MPP):
How many module per string
Most temperature coefficient around -0.3% / °C to -0.5% / °C.
STC standard test condition, NOCT nominal operation cell
temperature
Basic Principles to Design a Quality PV System
• 1. Select a packaged system that meets the owner's needs. desire for
backup power, initial budget constraints, etc. Size and orient the PV
array to provide the expected electrical power and energy.
• 2. Ensure the roof area or other installation site is capable of handling
the desired system size.
• 3. Specify sunlight and weather resistant materials for all outdoor
equipment.
• 4. Locate the array to minimize shading from adjacent structures.
• 5. Design the system with a minimum of electrical losses due to wiring,
fuses, switches, and inverters.
• 6. Properly house and manage the battery system, should batteries be
required.
 Basic Steps to Install a PV System
• 1. Ensure the roof area or other installation site is capable of handling the
desired system size.
• 2. If roof mounted, verify that the roof is capable of handling additional
weight of PV system. roof structure as necessary.
• 3. Properly seal any roof penetrations with roofing industry approved
sealing methods.
• 4. Install equipment according to manufacturers specifications, using
installation requirements and procedures from the manufacturers'
specifications.
• 5. Properly ground the system parts to reduce the threat of shock hazards
and induced surges.
1. Site assessment
Shed analysis , roof area, Sun Hour, Tilt Angle
2. Calculate Wattage of the Solar Panels
Calculation of Energy Demand , Finding the Total Load
Finding the Size and No. of Solar Panels-- PV connection, PV classification, Types of PV Systems
Panel Sizing ---location and spacing ( solar array, string)
3. Standalone or Off-Grid Systems , Integrated or Grid-Tied System
4. Find the Rating and Size of Inverter
Find The Rating and Size of Solar Charge Controller
5. Find the Size, Rating & Nos of Batteries, kind of battery ( acid, LIPO4)
6. Finding the Cable, CB, fuse, Isolator Switches, earthing, LA, SPD,
7. Sample solar power design
8. Mounting structure
9. Safety
10. Maintenance
1. Site assessment

• Shed analysis ,
• roof area,
• Sun Hour,
• Tilt Angle
Minimum Shade
• It must be made sure that the selected site either at rooftop or
ground should not have shades or should not have any structure that
intercepts the solar radiation falling on the panels to be installed.
Also, make sure that there won’t be any structural construction soon
surrounding the installation that might cause the problem of shading.
Surface Area:
• The surface area of the site at which the PV installation is intended
should be known, to have an estimation of the size and number of
panels required to generate the required power output for the load.
This also helps to plan the installation of inverter, and battery banks.
Rooftop
• In the case of the rooftop installation the type of roof and its
structure must be known. In the case of tilt roofs, the angle of tilt
must be known and necessary mounting must be used to make the
panels have more incidents of solar radiation i.e. ideally the radiation
angle must be perpendicular to the PV panel and practically as close
as to 90 degrees.
 Routes
• Possible routes
• minimum utilization of cables and lower voltage drop in cables.
• The designer should choose between the efficiency and the cost of the system.
• Potential routes for AC and DC cables.
• Electrical rooms.
• Single line diagrams (if available inside the electrical room).
• Electrical load schedules or load lists (if available inside the electrical room).
• Main electrical distribution board.
• Breakers inside the MDBs/SMDBs/LV Panels.
• Potential space/areas for inverters.
• Maintenance paths.
sun hour
Sun hours are important to know how much radiance will be required to
generate the needed output wattage.
 Tilt angle
• Tilt angle is the setting of the panels one needs to have to get the
maximum radiance.
• Ideally the tilt angle is the latitude of the geographic location.
• It is suggested to have an adjustable panel frames as the sun hours keep
changing with respect to the tilt in winters and summers. Hence for any
area a specific tilt angle is calculated to get the maximum radiance
through out the year for a fixed panel.
• It measures solar irradiance in Watts per meter Sq. (W/m^2)
Kilowatt-hours per square meter per day
(KWh/m2/day)
• It is a quantity of energy measured in kilowatt-hours, falling on square
meter per day.
• Daily Peak Sun Hours (PSH): Number of hours in a day during which
irradiance averages to 1000 W/m2.
• Peak sun hours are most commonly used as they simplify the
calculations. Do not get confused with the “Mean Sunshine Hours” and
“Peak Sun Hours”
• “Mean sunshine hours” indicates the number of hours the sunshine’s
• “Peak sun hours” is the actual amount of energy received in
KWh/m2/day.
PV Losses
PAC=PDC,STC x Derate Factor x Ctemp

Derate factor (range)

PV module nameplate DC rating 0.98 (0.9-1.05)
Inverter DC to AC efficiency 0.98 (0.97-0.99)
Diodes and connections 0.995 (0.99-0.997)
DC wiring 0.98 (0.97-0.99)
AC wiring 0.99 (0.98-0.993)
Soiling 0.98 (0.7-0.995)
System availability 0.99 (0.7-1)
Age 0.98 (0.7-1) (0.5% per year)
Shading 0.97 (0.7-1)
Total derate factor 0.864 (0.2-1)
2. Calculate Wattage of the Solar Panels

Calculation of Energy Demand

Finding the Total Load
Finding the Size and No. of Solar Panels-- PV connection, PV
classification, Types of PV Systems
Solar Panel Sizing ---location and spacing ( solar array, string)
• No. of units × rating of equipment = 2 × 18 + 2 × 60 = 156 watts
Total watt-hours rating of the system
• Total connected load (watts) × Operating hours = 156 × 6 = 936 watt-hours
• Actual power output of a PV panel = Peak power rating × operating factor
40 × 0.75 = 30 watt
• Actual power output of a panel × combined efficiency
= 30 × 0.81 = 24.3 watts (VA)
= 24.3 watts
• Energy produced by one 40 Wp panel in a day
= Actual power output × 8 hours/day (peak equivalent)
= 24.3 × 8 = 194.4 watts-hour
• Number of solar panels required to satisfy given estimated daily load :
= (Total watt-hour rating (daily load)/(Daily energy produced by a panel)
=936/194.4 = 4.81 = 5 (round figure)
 solar array, string

• A photovoltaic or PV array is created when two or more solar panels

are connected.
• An array is a grouping of interconnected solar panels that operate
together. It may contain 2 panels or more than 1 million.
• The number of solar panels that can be connected to an inverter to get
the greatest results is shown by the string sizing.
What is a String of Solar Panels?

• A panel string is a collection of panels that are connected to your power

inverter’s singular input.
• The computations we perform to decide how many panels to connect to
one input for maximum efficiency are known as string sizing.
• For instance, this grid-tied setup consists of one 7700W inverter and 24*
360W panels. Three strings are input into the inverter, which is
appropriately named a string inverter.
• Three strings of eight panels each are intended to be connected to
those inputs by this method. (totaling 24 panels).
 What is Solar Panel String Voltage?
• Solar panel string voltages are important as it is necessary in order to
calculate the string size.
• The reliability and safety of a solar system that uses string solar inverters
or solar charge controllers depend on the precise calculation of the string
voltage.
• The performance will be significantly reduced or, in the worst case, the
inverter may be destroyed or even set on fire if the string voltage exceeds
or falls below the working voltage of the MPPT, inverter, or other related
equipment.
Connecting solar panels in Series

• When stringing panels are in series, each additional panel is involved in

the total voltage, which is symbolized as (V) of the string, but the current
(I) in the string remains constant.
 Connecting solar panels in parallel
• When stringing panels are in a parallel stage, each additional panel
increases the current (amperage) of the circuit.
• However, the voltage of the circuit remains constant (equivalent to the
voltage of each panel).
• As an effect of this, we get an advantage that if one panel is heavily shaded,
the rest of the panels can operate in a normal way, and the current of the
overall string will not be decreased.
There are two main steps in calculating string
size.
1.What is the maximum string size possible?
2.What is the minimum string size possible?

• Find Your Panel and Inverter Specs

• Check the spec sheets for your solar panels and
inverters. Key numbers are the panels’ open circuit
voltage (Voc), maximum power voltage (Vmp), and the
inverter’s maximum and minimum DC input voltage.
 How to estimate the size of the String
• The size of the string is dependent upon the specific voltage of your panels and
inverter, along with outside factors like temperature.
• Each panel has an output voltage. These voltages of the panels are transmitted to
the inverter. Here we have mentioned some of the sizes to choose from:
• Open Circuit Voltage (Voc):
• Max Power Voltage (Vmp):
 how to string solar panels
• 1. Ensure the minimum and maximum voltage range of the inverter
The strings that are connected to the inverters must be under the range limit of
the inverter voltage. It must not exceed the maximum input voltage or maximum
current or not fall below its minimum/start voltage.
• 2. Make sure that the strings have similar conditions
Once you’ve determined that your strings are within the acceptable length for the
inverter specifications, another essential key to consider is that the strings must have
similar conditions (for instance, same azimuth/orientation, same tilt, and same
irradiance) at which they are connected to the same inverter MPPT.
Consider Temperature Effects
• The maximum number of solar panels you can connect in a
string is determined by the maximum input voltage of your
inverter or charge controller. You can find this value on the
inverter datasheet.
• If the maximum input voltage of your inverter is exceeded on a
cold day, the inverter can be damaged.
• To make sure you don’t exceed the maximum voltage of your
inverter, the first thing you need to understand is how the
voltage of the solar panels changes with temperature.
Find the lowest expected temperature at
your location
• Since you need to find your maximum string voltage, and you
know that voltage increases as temperature decreases, you
need to find out what your lowest expected temperature is.
Calculate the maximum voltage of one panel

• the solar panel Voc and Temperature coefficient, and the lowest
expected temperature for your location.
• You can now calculate the voltage of a panel at that
temperature, which is the maximum voltage of one panel.
Calculate the maximum panels per string for
your inverter
• Once you have the max Voc of one panel, all you have to do is
divide your inverter maximum voltage by this value, and then
round down to the nearest whole number.
Calculating minimum string size

• The method is very similar to calculating maximum string size.

The main differences are that Vmp is used instead of Voc,
• we have to choose a maximum temperature.
Example:

• I am ready to install one 5KW three phase inverter,

• the using solar panel model is 330W module,
• the minimum surface temperature is -3℃ and the maximum temperature
is 35℃, ( condition of site)
• PV Isc = 9.22 A
• Voc is 45.5V,
• Vmpp is 37.8V,
• the inverter MPPT voltage range is 160V-950V, inverter Isc=12.5A
• and the maximum voltage can withstand 1000V.
(Vmpp is max power point voltage)
 Solar Inverter String Design Calculations
• The voltage/current of the system will always be at it’s highest in the coldest
conditions.
• we need to know how many solar panels you intend to wire in series.
• Voltage Sizing:
• 1. Max panel’s voltage =Voc*(1+(Min.temp-25)*temperature
coefficient(Voc)
2. Max number of Solar panels=Max. input voltage / Max panel’s voltage
• Current Sizing:
• 1. Min panel’s current =Isc*(1+(Max.temp-25)*temperature coefficient(Isc)
2. Max number of strings=Max. input current / Min panel’s current
 A. voltage sizing
• (1) Calculation of the Open Circuit Voltage Volt at -3℃:
• Voc (-3℃)= 45.5*(1+(-3-25)*(-0.33%)) = 49.7 V
• (2) Calculation of N the maximum number of modules in each string:
• N = Max input voltage (1000 V)/49.7 Volt = 20.12 (always round down)
• The number of solar PV panels in each string must not exceed 20 modules
• (3) Calculation of the Voltage V at 35℃:
• V (35℃)=45.5*(1+(35-25)*(-0.33%))= 44 V
• (4) Calculation of the minimum number of modules M in each string:
• M = Min MPP voltage (160 V)/ 44 Volt = 3.64(always round up)
• The number of solar PV panels in each string must be at least 4 modules.
B. Current Sizing
• The short circuit current Isc of the PV array must not exceed the allowed maximum Input current of
the solar power inverter:
• (1) Calculation of the minimum Current at 35℃:
• Isc (35℃) = 9.22*(1+(35-25)*(-0.06%))= 9.16 A
• (2) Calculation of the maximum number of strings:
• P = Maximum input current (12.5A)/9.16 A = 1.36 strings (always round down)
 Conclusion:

• 1. The PV generator (PV array) consists of one string, which is connected to the
three phase 5KW inverter.
• 2. In each string the connected solar panels should be within 4-20 modules.
• Mono crystal panel Best MPPT Voc =Best MPPT voltage x 1.2=630×1.2=756V ##
• N = Best MPPT Voc / Voc (-3°C) = 756V/49.7V=15.21
• So for three phase inverter, the recommended input solar panels are 16 modules,
and just need to be connected one string 16x330W=5280W.
(Inverter input No: of solar panels it depends on cell temperature and
temperature coefficient. )
• Remark:
## Since the best MPPT voltage of three phase inverter is around 630V (best MPPT
voltage of single phase inverter is around 360V), the working efficiency of the
inverter is the highest at this time. So it is recommended to calculate the number of
solar modules according to the best MPPT voltage:
 Solar Inverter String Design Calculations
• The voltage/current of the system will always be at it’s highest in the coldest
conditions.
• we need to know how many solar panels you intend to wire in series.
• Voltage Sizing:
• 1. Max panel’s voltage =Voc*(1+(Min.temp-25)*temperature
coefficient(Voc))
2. Max number of Solar panels=Max. inverter input voltage / Max panel’s
voltage
• Current Sizing:
• 1. Max panel’s current =Isc*(1+(Max.temp-25)*temperature coefficient(Isc))
2. Max number of strings=Max. input current / Min panel’s current
Example:
• I am ready to install one 12KW three phase inverter,
• Max input power = 15600W
• the using solar panel model is 550W module,
• the minimum surface temperature is 4℃ and the maximum temperature is
45℃, ( condition of site)
• PV Isc = 14.01 A, Impp=13.23 A
• Voc is 50.27V,
• Vmpp is 41.58V,
• the inverter MPPT voltage range is 150V-850V, 600V
• inverter max PV input current =26A/20A (2 mppt)
(Vmpp is max power point voltage)
Vtemp= -0.25%, Item= 0.046%
 A. voltage sizing
• (1) Calculation of the Open Circuit Voltage Volt at 4℃:
• Voc (4℃)= 50.27*(1+(4-25)*(-0.25%)) = 51.3 V
• (2) Calculation of N the maximum number of modules in each string:
• N = Max input voltage (850 V)/ 51.3 Volt = 16.6 (always round down)
• The number of solar PV panels in each string must not exceed 16 modules
• (3) Calculation of the Voltage V at 45℃:
• V (45℃)=41.58*(1+(45-25)*(-0.25%))= 39.5 V
• (4) Calculation of the minimum number of modules M in each string:
• M = Min MPP voltage (150 V)/ 39.5 Volt = 3.8 (always round up)
• The number of solar PV panels in each string must be at least 4 modules.
B. Current Sizing
• The short circuit current Isc of the PV array must not exceed the allowed maximum Input current of
the solar power inverter:
• (1) Calculation of the maximum Current at 45℃:
• Isc (45℃) = 14.01*(1+(45-25)*(0.046%))= 14.14 A
• (2) Calculation of the maximum number of strings:
• P = Maximum input current (26A)/14.14 A = 1.84 = 1 strings, 20A/14.14=1.41=1 strings
 Conclusion:

• 1. The PV generator (PV array) consists of two string, which is connected to the
three phase 12KW inverter.
• 2. In each string the connected solar panels should be within 4-16 modules.
• Mono crystal panel Best MPPT Voc =Best MPPT voltage x 1.1=630×1.1=693V ##
• N = Best MPPT Voc / Voc (4°C) = 693V/51.3V=13.5
• So for three phase inverter, the recommended input solar panels are 14 modules,
and just need to be connected two string 2*14x550W=15400W.
• Remark:
## Since the best MPPT voltage of three phase inverter is around 630V (best MPPT
voltage of single phase inverter is around 360V),
the working efficiency of the inverter is the highest at this time.
So it is recommended to calculate the number of solar modules according to the
best MPPT voltage:
 PID (POTENTIAL INDUCED DEGRADATION)

• PID also known as a solar yield killer, is an undesirable

performance deterioration induced to ground.
• It develops internally in the solar modules after a few days or
weeks of installation.
• Need reduce PID
Super Multi Bus Bar
• (SMBB) solar cell technology is an advanced photovoltaic (PV)
technology that involves using multiple thin copper or silver
strips, known as “bus bars,” to connect the solar cells in a solar
module.
• To improve module power output
(LID)
• For untreated cells, (Light Induced Degradation) usually occurs
when PV modules are first exposed to light and reduces
performance up to 3%.
• Light and Elevated Temperature Induced Degradation (LETID)
occurs over a longer period and can reduce performance by up
to 3% and in worst cases up to 6%.
the best tilt for my solar panels

• The optimal angle for your solar panels will depend on your latitude.
• At the equator, the sun is almost directly overhead, so solar panels
should be installed at a relatively shallow angle, around 10-15
degrees.
• As you move further away from the equator, the sun's angle becomes
more oblique, so solar panels should be installed at a steeper angle to
capture more direct sunlight.
• This will allow them to capture the most sunlight possible and
generate the most electricity.
Mandalay
Latitude: 21.9747, Longitude: 96.0836
• The average energy production per day for each kW of
installed solar in Mandalay varies by season: 5.21 kWh in
Summer, 5.02 kWh in Autumn, 5.29 kWh in Winter, and 6.40
kWh in Spring, with the highest output occurring during the
Spring season.

there are no major weather conditions that would significantly

impede power generation via solar PV at this location.

21’ south , for optimal energy production from a fixed.

Overall Best Summer Angle Overall Best Autumn Angle Overall Best Winter Angle Overall Best Spring Angle

6° South in Summer 28° South in Autumn 37° South in Winter 15° South in Spring

Fixed tilt
If you're mounting the photovoltaic panels at a stationary angle, such as on your roof, the most
efficient angle is 19.13°.
2-Season tilt
If you're planning to change the angle of your photovoltaic panels twice per year, the most efficient
angle is 6° in summer months and 38.4° in winter months.
4-Season tilt
When changing the angle of your photovoltaic panels each season, the most efficient angle is 4.1° in
summer months and 43.6° in winter months, and 19.2° in autumn and spring months.
BIFACIAL SOLAR PANELS
• Bifacial solar panels perform best when installed near highly reflective
surfaces. Such as swimming pools glass, sandy, stoney or snowy
areas.
• Although the front of the panel still absorbs the majority of the
sunlight, some bifacial models are capable of increasing energy
production by up to 30%.
• The exact amount of extra energy will depend on the environment
surrounding the solar panels themselves.
 THE ADVANTAGES OF BIFACIAL SOLAR PANELS

• Increased Efficiency. up to 30% more energy than conventional monofacial solar panels.
• less space per watt,
• More Durable. As bifacial panels are frameless, and are covered both sides by tempered
glass, they're often more durable. The tempered glass is weather-resistant, UV resistant
and can withstand high temperatures and strong winds. longer lifespans.
• Aesthetically Pleasing. Bifacial modules come in many designs, including frameless. Many
see the complete glass frame more aesthetically pleasing compared to monofacial solar
panels.
• Works Well in Diffuse Light. The extra surface area also means that bifacial panels
perform better in diffuse light. Making the long-term costs lower than monofacial panels.
• Reduced PID. In the instance of a frameless bifacial panel, the solar cells are less likely to
suffer from potential-induced degradation (PID). This is where electrical currents stray
from their intended path. without a metal frame don’t require grounding,
• Longer Warranties. Bifacial solar panels often come with a longer warranty of up to 30
years.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF BIFACIAL SOLAR PANELS

• Initial Costs. Due to the manufacturing process, bifacial solar panels

can cost up to 10% more than monofacial solar panels.
• Installation Costs. As bifacial solar panels are heavier, and require
specialised equipment to take full advantages of the benefits, the
installation costs are higher.
USE BIFIACIAL PANELS ON A ROOF

• Bifacial solar panels work best when they lie around four metres from
the ground.
• This is because the higher up the panel sits, the more light is able to
get underneath them.
• For this reason bifacial solar panels are unlikely to suit a residential
setting,
Solar Busbar Ribbon
• A busbar ribbon is a metal strip on the front of a solar cell responsible for carrying
the electricity out of the cell.
• Earlier solar modules had just 2 busbar ribbons per cell.
• But by 2016, more than 50% of solar panels had 3 busbar ribbons because the cells
were producing more power in the same space, which needed more pathways to
escape the cell.
• Since then, the average number of busbar ribbons has increased to 5, and then up to
9 and above in the latest panels.
• Adding more busbar ribbons reduces the distance between them. This can cut
energy loss and improve module efficiency.
• However, more busbar ribbons have some drawbacks because they occupy
additional space on the cell, which could be used to capture more energy, and to a
minor degree, they cause shading.
Busbar-less Panels

• Busbar-less solar cells are cut into strips and conduct direct
current to neighbouring cells without busbar ribbons.
Benefits Of Zero Busbar Technology
• Zero busbar technology has many advantages compared to
conventional panels.
• It increases overall efficiency, decreases the amount of
materials used, and it even improves the aesthetics of PV
modules.
 benefits
• 1. Increased Efficiency
• more space on each cell and increases panel efficiency.
• 2. Reduced Shading
• The use of round wires instead of flat, rectangular ribbons in Multi-Busbar modules already reduces a substantial
amount of the shading. But with zero busbar technology, the shading of the busbars is cut to zero.
• 3. Reduced Cost of Material
• Busbar ribbons are usually flat strips or round wires made of silver- or tin-plated copper, The silver plating enhances
conductivity on the front and reduces oxidation on the rear side.
• 4. Better for the Environment
• Removing silver and copper from the panels has an even greater positive effect on the environment.
• 5. Aesthetics
• They look modern and more sophisticated than earlier models with busbars.
• 6. Fewer Micro Cracks and Hot Spots
• the transport or installation stage of a solar panel, but also during the whole lifecycle of a module.
• the changes in temperature during day and night.
• they can result in power output losses of up to 2.5%.
• 7. Better Performance in Shade
• Busbar-less panels have reduced the distances current needs to travel, significantly improving efficiency in shade.
 factors shopping for solar panels

• Efficiency: Higher efficiency panels will produce more electricity and may be a
better choice if you have limited space on your roof.
• Type of panel: monocrystalline and polycrystalline. Monocrystalline panels
are made from a single, continuous crystal of silicon and are generally more
efficient and more expensive. Polycrystalline panels are made from many
smaller crystals of silicon and are less efficient but also less expensive.
• Size and weight: Make sure the solar panels you choose will fit on your roof
and that your roof is able to support their weight.
• Brand and warranty: Consider the reputation of the manufacturer and the
terms of their warranty.
• Cost: taking into account their efficiency, size, and warranty.
Mixing different panels, in series or in parallel, ALWAYS
reduces the installed wattage.
• Therefore, if you want to get the maximum power from your solar
array, you should only connect similar panels.
• Mixing different panels, whether connected in series or in parallel,
ALWAYS reduces power wattage.
• you should know that:
• 1) For series connection – the same current rating of the panels is
more important.
• 2) For parallel connection – the same voltage rating of the panels is
more important.
an Ideal Mixing of different solar panels of the same voltage,
connected in parallel, with the help of a charge controller:
 3. Types of Solar power systems
• In terms of energy storage,
• on-grid systems do not need storage;
• off-grid systems use very large storage,
• hybrid systems use a storage size depending on load requirements.
• In an on-grid solar system, when there’s no power from the national grid, there is a
blackout (if there’s no storage).
• In off-grid and hybrid solar systems, the energy storage (battery) provides backup power
when the national grid is down.
• In terms of cost,
• 1. off-grid solar systems are the most expensive because of the more storage.
• 2. followed by hybrid solar systems.
• 3. on-grid solar systems are the least expensive.
On grid
Benefits of on grid systems
• 1. Save more money with net metering
• 2. Lower upfront costs and ease of installation
• Grid-tied solar systems are the only type of solar system that don’t
require a battery to function. This makes grid-tied systems cheaper
and simpler to install, and also means there is less maintenance
required.
• 3. You can use the utility grid as a virtual battery
 hybrid solar system
• Hybrid solar systems are solar power system that utilizes solar panels,
a hybrid inverter, and a hybrid battery bank.
• A hybrid energy system includes good features of on-grid and off-grid
solar systems,
• users to continue running on solar energy even when the grid goes
dark.
• Hybrid systems are systems that have two generation sources e.g a
solar and storage.
• It combines the best approaches of both on-grid and off-grid
systems. It could be connected to the national electric grid too.
• Hybrid solar systems use batteries to store excess solar energy during
the day, which can be used later when there is no sun.
Hybrid/ off grid
Components In Hybrid Solar System
• solar panels that convert solar energy into DC usable electricity,
• a hybrid battery that converts DC to AC voltage and regulates the voltage,
• D C Delivery Box (DCDB) that connects multiple solar panel wire together
• a solar charge controller that controls the quantity of power going inside the
battery while enhancing the battery life.
• It can maximize power production by switching between solar, battery storage,
and grid power.
• It allows you to avoid dependence on grid power, allowing you to save on your
electricity bills.
 Benefits of Using Hybrid Solar Systems
• compensation is provided for surplus energy returned to the grid.
• Cost – Effectiveness
• Hybrid solar systems are less expensive than off-grid solar systems.
• Uninterrupted Power
• Flexibility and Sustainability.
Hybrid solar systems: benefits and drawbacks

• A hybrid solar systems is a combination of both grid-tied and off-grid solar

systems.
• Hybrid solar systems are beneficial because they provide backup power
during a grid outage.
• However, hybrid solar systems also have drawbacks.
• Hybrid solar system components can be more expensive than grid-tied or
off-grid system components.
• However, hybrid solar systems require more maintenance than off-grid
systems.
• Hybrid solar systems also have a shorter lifespan than grid-tied or off-grid
systems.
Choosing the Right Combination

• Choosing the right combination of on-grid and off-grid systems

depends on your energy needs and budget.
• If you live in an area with a reliable electrical grid and have a lower
budget, an on-grid system may be the best choice. On-grid systems
require less maintenance and have lower upfront costs.
• However, if you live in an area with frequent power outages or have
critical appliances that require uninterrupted power supply, an off-
grid system may be the best choice.
• Off-grid systems require batteries to store excess energy, which can
be expensive, but they provide a reliable power supply even during
outages.
Off-Grid System

• an off-grid solar system is a solar energy system that offers

independence from the utility grid.
• Off-grid solar is the best option for small to medium-sized homes,
vacation homes, and other similar structures,
• but it is typically not suitable for buildings with high energy needs (such
as commercial structures).
Benefits of off-grid solar systems

• 1. Can be installed where there is no access to the utility grid

• Off-grid solar systems can be cheaper than extending power lines in
certain remote areas.
• 2. Become energy self-sufficient
Living off the grid and being self-sufficient feels good.
Off-grid: benefits and drawbacks

• Off-grid solar systems are a great way to reduce your reliance on the
grid and save money on your energy bills.
• However, they do have some drawbacks.
• One of the biggest challenges of off-grid solar is storing enough
energy to power your home during times when the sun isn't shining.
• This can be a particular issue in the winter, when days are shorter and
weather conditions can make it difficult to generate enough
electricity.
 Difference on grid and off grid
Parameters On-Grid Off-Grid

Battery backup No Yes

Cost Low High

During power outages (Night) Does not work Works

Grid connectivity Yes ( net metering. ) No

High output days Excess power sent to the grid Wasted (if the battery is over charged)
Grid supplies required to
Low generation days power The battery charged
Uses battery ( expensive and not environmentally
Night time (power supply) Uses grid friendly )
Unit adjustment (in electricity
bill) Yes No
 on-grid system is more cost-effective than other systems,

• Primary Components: Solar Panel Array, Inverters, Meters, and Utility grid
• Suitable for: Residential, commercial and industrial properties where grid power is
readily available.
Pros
• I. Better Rate of Return on Investment and Increases Value of the House
• II. Easy to Maintain and Easily Synchronize with Other Power Resources
• III. Reduces Carbon Footprint
• IV. Reduction in Electricity Bill and Earning Money from Government
 Cons
• I) Dependency on the Grid
• II) High Upfront Cost
• Without batteries, the initial cost is reduced to some extent but with
inverters, the upfront costs are still high.
• III) Not Suitable for All Houses
• In rural areas, there is no regular power supply from the grid is not
suitable for on-grid systems. Also, you need to install grid-tied solar
panels in a sunny location for better output.
• IV) Time-Consuming Maintenance
off-grid system
Primary Components: Solar Panel Array, Inverters, and Batteries
• Suitable for: Rural and remote areas, agricultural lands and industrial properties

Pros
• I) Complete Independence from Grid and Power Outages
• II) Zero Carbon Footprints
• III) Power Storage Option
• Off-grid solar systems are paired with batteries providing a 24*7 solution to
power problems.
In case there is no sufficient power generation on cloudy days, stored
power can be used.
• IV) Power to Remote Areas
 Cons
• I) Excess Power is Wasted
• With bigger batteries and efficient solar panels, there is more than enough power output.
Since the system is not connected to the grid and batteries also have a limited storage
capacity, this surplus energy goes wasted.
• II) Limited Energy Storage
• III) More Expensive
• with batteries the system gets even more expensive. And without batteries, you cannot
operate an off-grid solar system.
• IV) No Alternate Power Resources
 A hybrid solar system
• Primary Components: Solar Panel Array, Batteries, Inverters, Meter, and the Utility
grid
• Suitable for: Residential and commercial areas, agricultural lands, and industries
Pros
• I) Backup is Provided
• II) Can Function in Multiple Ways
• A hybrid solar system works as an off-grid solar system.
• After sunset, it turns into an on-grid solar system at times of power outages
or insufficient power generation, it fulfills power requirements by converting to
inverter mode and using stored power from batteries.
• III) Equipped with Load Management
• IV) Optimal Utilization of Resources
 Cons
• I) Complicated and Complex Control
• A hybrid solar system has different types of power outputs and connections and not
everyone is an expert with wires and terminals.
• Working and handling hybrid systems can be complex for some people to handle.
• II) High Installation Cost
• III) Limited Compatible Devices
• Since the functioning of hybrid systems is complex, the number of devices compatible with
them is also limited.
• IV) More Space Required
Parameters Off-Grid Hybrid

Battery backup Yes Yes

Cost High High

During power outages Works Works

Grid connectivity No Yes

Wasted (if the battery is full
High output days charged) Sent back to the grid
Grid supplies required to
Low generation days The battery is not charged power

Night time (power supply) Uses battery Uses both (battery and grid)

Unit adjustment (in electricity bill) No Yes

Property On-Grid Off-Grid Hybrid

Connection to Grid Yes No Yes

Battery Backup No Yes Yes
Uses both grid and
Night Time Uses Grid Uses battery
battery
In case of low energy Supplements through Unable to charge Supplements through
generation electric grid battery electric grid
In case of surplus
Sent back to Grid Wasted Sent Back to Grid
energy
Cost Low High High
Works During Power
No Yes Yes
Outages
Unit Adjustment in
Yes No Yes
electricity bill
Selection of Components for Solar PV System

Solar Module Parameters

•Cost.
•Efficiency.
•Availability.
•Product Warranty.
•Power output Warranty.
•Open Circuit Voltage.
•Max Power point Voltage.
•Max Power point Current.
•Weight.
 Mounting Structure Fixed Tilt
•Single Axis Tracking.
•Dual Axis Tracking.
•Tracking technology.
•Distance between the rows.
•Design strength.
•Power required for tracking operation.
•Additional gain due to tracker.
•Warranty on Structures.
•Guarantee against additional gain.
 Inverters
• Suitability of Rated AC power.
• Range of Max. Power point
• Higher output AC voltage.
• Infield starting power requirement
Electrical Distribution Network (EDN)
Structure of LV Distribution

Level 1 General LV
= incomer Switchboard

Level 2
= MSB ACBs/MCCBs
feeders Distribution

Level 3 Switchboard
= power or motor
distribution control

Level 4
ACB/MCCB/SDF

Final
= final distribution switchboards
distribution

MCCB/MCBs
Loads

E62649
 Electrical Distribution Network (EDN) - Calculation
Loads

Transformer Rating

Cable Size

Fault Calculation

Discrimination & Cascading

Communication
Confidential Property of Schneider Electric
 Types of faults
Overload L

L-N
Short circuit L-L
L-L-L

Earth Fault L-E

Generally, Which Fault is the basis for design of

electrical distribution network?

Confidential Property of Schneider Electric

 Over load
➢This is the scenario when load current exceeds the current carrying
capacity of wire/cables.

2.5mm2 cable current carrying capacity = 24A

Total Load Current 12A 12A 12A

= IL1 + IL2 + IL3 LOAD LOAD LOAD
= 12 + 12 + 12 (3) (2) (1)
= 24
36
36A
 Over load
Causes:
➢Overloading of equipments.
➢Improper rating selection of wires and cables.
➢Unplanned expansion of electrical installation

Consequences:
➢Heating of wire
➢Degradation of insulation
➢Decreasing wire life
➢May cause FIRE
 Short circuit
➢This is the scenario when Phase and Phase/Neutral conductors are connected
with very low resistance path, which results in flow of very high current through
the installation.

2.5mm2 cable current carrying capacity = High current A

12A
If=V/R
LOAD
= 230/.01
(1)
=23000A=23kA
 Short circuit
Causes:
➢Poor quality insulation
➢Insulation failure due to heating
➢Insulation failure due to damage during wire
pulling through conduit
➢Insulation failure due to ageing
➢Improper wiring
➢Damage to insulation
Consequences:
➢May cause FIRE
➢Irrevocable installation damage
 Earth Fault
➢This is the scenario when Phase and Earth conductors are connected with least
resistance path, which results in flow of fault current through the installation.

2.5mm2 cable current carrying capacity = 50A

12A
LOAD
(1)
If=V/R

= 12 = 230/R
= Fault Current
Fault Current
= 38A
 Earth Fault
Causes:
➢Poor quality insulation
➢Insulation failure due to heating
➢Insulation failure due to ageing
➢Accidental contact with live part

Consequences:
➢Main cause for FIRE
➢Irrevocable installation damage
➢Human life
 4. Inverter
• Three major types
• Grid-tie inverter: It functions to convert DC to AC, with an ability to
synchronize to interface with a utility line. This inverter is designed to
transmit your unused electricity to the grid and has no battery.
• Off-grid (Stand-alone) inverter: It works to convert DC to AC from a
storage battery. These inverters are used to provide electricity to a
number of residential and commercial projects.
• Hybrid inverter: This product also functions to convert DC to AC and its
difference is that it can be used in both a grid-tie PV system and an off-
grid PV system.
Load Analysis
• Accurate Sizing
Accurate sizing of the load involves analyzing the various
components in the load list in terms of energy level requirements.
• Peak current loads
• Plan for the future
The system must be scalable to cater to the needs of expansion
within its projected life cycle.
• Solar charge controller – regulates the voltage and current coming
from the PV panels going to battery and prevents battery
overcharging and prolongs the battery life.
Inverter sizing
• An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed.
• The input rating of the inverter should never be lower than the total watt of
load appliances.
• The inverter must have the same nominal voltage as your battery.
• For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the total
amount of Watts you will be using at one time.
• The inverter size should be 25-30% bigger than total Watts of appliances.
• In case of appliance type is motor or compressor then inverter size should be
minimum 3 times the capacity of those appliances and must be added to the
inverter capacity to handle surge current during starting.
• For on grid systems, the input rating of the inverter should be same as PV array
rating to allow for safe and efficient operation.
 Battery sizing
• The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle battery.
• Deep cycle battery is specifically designed for to be discharged to low energy level
and rapid recharged or cycle charged and discharged day after day for years.
• The battery should be large enough to store sufficient energy to operate the
appliances at night and cloudy days.
• To find out the size of battery, calculate as follows:
• 1. Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by appliances.
• 2. Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 for battery loss.
• 3. Divide the answer obtained in item 2 by 0.6 for depth of discharge.
• 4. Divide the answer obtained in item 3 by the nominal battery voltage.
• 5. Multiply the answer obtained in item 4 with days of autonomy to get the
required Ampere-hour capacity of deep-cycle battery.
• Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x Days of
autonomy (0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)
 Solar charge controller sizing
• The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and Voltage
capacities.
• Select the solar charge controller to match the voltage of PV array and
batteries.
• Make sure that solar charge controller has enough capacity to handle the
current from PV array.
• the sizing of controller depends on the total PV input current which is
delivered to the controller and also depends on PV panel configuration
(series or parallel configuration).
• to take the short circuit current (Isc) of the PV array, and multiply it by 1.3
• Solar charge controller rating = Total short circuit current of PV array x 1.3
The system will be powered by 12 Vdc, 110 Wp PV module.

• Solar charge controller sizing

• PV module specification Pm = 110 Wp
• Vm = 16.7 Vdc
• Im = 6.6 A
• Voc = 20.7
• Isc = 7.5 A
• Solar charge controller rating = (4 strings x 7.5 A) x 1.3 = 39 A
• So the solar charge controller should be rated 40 A at 12 V or greater.
Five Steps To solar system Sizing

• Solar Array
• Charge Controller
• Battery Bank
• Inverter
• AC and DC Loads
which consume the power generated by your PV array.
• Balance of System
(array combiner box, properly sized cabling, fuses, switches, circuit
breakers and meters.)
Determining Power Requirements

• Calculate the total power requirement by adding up the power ratings

of all the devices you intend to use simultaneously.
• Add a safety margin to the total power requirement to accommodate
potential power surges or unexpected power demands. It’s
recommended to multiply the total power requirement by a factor of
1.2 or 1.5, depending on your level of caution.
• Keep in mind that different appliances have different starting
currents, which are usually higher than their regular operating
currents.
• Take this into account while determining your power requirements to
ensure your inverter can handle the initial surge of power.
 Types Of Inverters And Their Applications
• Modified Sine Wave Inverters:
• Suitable for powering basic electronics such as laptops, smartphones, and small household
appliances.
• May not be compatible with sensitive electronics like medical equipment or certain types of
motors.
• Pure Sine Wave Inverters:
• Provide power output similar to that of a standard wall outlet, making them suitable for all
types of electronics.
• Compatible with sensitive devices like medical equipment, refrigerators, microwaves,
• Grid Tie Inverters:
• Designed specifically for use with grid-connected solar power systems.
• Convert DC power from solar panels into AC power that can be fed back into the electrical
grid.
• Enable you to reduce your energy bills and even earn money by selling excess power back to
the grid.
Efficiency

• Look for inverters with high efficiency ratings, as this indicates how
much of the DC power input is effectively converted into AC power
output.
• Higher efficiency means less energy wasted as heat and more
efficient operation overall.
• Consider inverters with efficiencies of at least 80% or higher for
better performance and energy savings.
Configuring Inverter Settings And Controls
• To configure the settings and controls of the inverter, carefully review
the manufacturer’s instructions and user manual.
• Access the inverter’s control panel or interface to adjust parameters
such as output voltage, frequency, and overload protection settings.
• Set the inverter to the desired AC output voltage and frequency
suitable for the connected devices or appliances.
• battery charging modes or energy-saving options.
• within the recommended operating limits provided by the
manufacturer.
• Regularly monitor the inverter’s performance and settings to ensure
optimal functionality and make adjustments as needed.
Managing Power Loads Effectively

Here are some tips to help you manage power loads effectively:
• Distribute power equally
• Avoid simultaneous high-power usage:
• Use energy-efficient appliances:
• Consider peak power hours:
 Standard String Optimized String Hybrid Inverter
Micro Inverters
Inverters Inverters Systems

More expensive than

Slightly more
standard string The most expensive
expensive than
Price Usually cheapest inverters and more inverter but it does
optimizers but not by
economical than more.
much.
microinverters
Warranty 10-15 years 25-years— 25-years 5-12 years
Generally not Failure can mean panel Difficult due to
Ease of Maintenance repairable just replacement, or on- installation under Easily accessible
replaceable. site repairs panels
The output of one Helps optimize power
panel can limit the production on Excellent as energy is Does not help with
Shade Mitigation
output of the entire complex array designs, optimized at the panel panel efficiency
string. including shade.
Good. Installed inside
Installed near the Installed under the Good, installation
or near your power
power meter panel makes then invisible.
meter.
A solar inverter or photovoltaic (PV)
inverter
• a type of power inverter which converts the variable direct current (DC)
output of a photovoltaic solar panel into a utility frequency alternating
current (AC) that can be fed into a commercial electrical grid or used by a
local, off-grid electrical network.
• have special functions adapted for use with photovoltaic arrays,
including maximum power point tracking and protection.
 Solar inverters four types
• Stand-alone inverters, used in stand-alone power systems where the inverter draws its
DC energy from batteries charged by photovoltaic arrays. Many stand-alone inverters
also incorporate integral battery chargers to replenish the battery from an AC source
when available. Normally these do not interface in any way with the utility grid,
• Grid-tie inverters, which match phase with a utility-supplied sine wave. Grid-tie inverters
are designed to shut down automatically upon loss of utility supply, for safety reasons.
They do not provide backup power during utility outages.
• Battery backup inverters are special inverters which are designed to draw energy from
a battery, manage the battery charge via an onboard charger, and export excess energy
to the utility grid. These inverters are capable of supplying AC energy to selected loads
during a utility outage.
• Intelligent hybrid inverters manage photovoltaic array, battery storage and utility grid,
which are all coupled directly to the unit. These modern all-in-one systems are usually
highly versatile and can be used for grid-tie, stand-alone or backup applications but their
primary function is self-consumption with the use of storage.
maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
• Solar inverters use maximum power point tracking (MPPT) to get the maximum possible
power from the PV array. Solar cells have a complex relationship between solar irradiation,
temperature and total resistance that produces a non-linear output efficiency known as
the I-V curve.
• It is the purpose of the MPPT system to sample the output of the cells and determine a
resistance (load) to obtain maximum power for any given environmental conditions.
• There are three main types of MPPT --- perturb-and-observe, incremental conductance
and constant voltage.
• The first two methods are often referred to as hill climbing methods; they rely on the curve
of power plotted against voltage rising to the left of the maximum power point, and falling on
the right.
Solar pumping inverters

• Advanced solar pumping inverters convert DC voltage from the solar array
into AC voltage to drive submersible pumps directly without batteries or
other energy storage devices.
• By utilizing MPPT (maximum power point tracking), solar pumping
inverters regulate output frequency to control the speed of the pumps in
order to save the pump motor from damage.
• Solar pumping inverters usually have multiple ports to allow the input of
DC current generated by PV arrays, one port to allow the output of AC
voltage, and a further port for input from a water-level sensor.
 Solar Inverter Advantages
• Solar energy has always helped in reducing global warming and green house effect.
• Also use of solar energy helps in saving money many people have started using solar based
devices
• A solar inverter helps in converting the Direct current into batteries or alternative current.
This helps people who use limited amount of electricity.
• There is this synchronous solar inverter that helps small homeowners and power
companies as they are large in size
• Then there is this multifunction solar inverter which is the best among all and works
efficiently. It converts the DC power to AC very carefully which is perfect for commercial
establishments
• This inverter is cost effective i.e. less expensive than generators
• Apart from solar inverters there are other devices too that make use of solar energy
namely, solar cooker, heater.
• Solar inverters are the best way and they are better than the normal electric ones. Also
their maintenance does not cost much money
Solar Inverter Disadvantages
• Initially you need to shell out a lot of money for buying a solar inverter
• It will work effectively and produce direct current only when the Sunlight is
strong.
• The solar panels that are used to attract Sunlight requires lots of space
• The device can work efficiently only if the presence of the Sun is strong.
• Solar Inverters can work when there is no Sunlight but provided their
battery is charged fully with the help of Sunlight.
• After counting on some of the disadvantages of solar inverter we can state
that when a device is very useful at some point of time it too requires
proper maintenance and when it comes to a solar device the equipment of
solar energy is must.
• So buy a solar device only if you have plenty of solar energy available.
 Inverters
• Solar modules and batteries operate with DC. The mains electricity, however, is AC.
Many electrical appliances, devices and accessories are only available for AC.
• An inverter transforms low-voltage DC supplied by a solar system into high-voltage AC.
The input of an inverter is designed for 12 V (24 V, 48 V, etc.), depending on the type.
• At the output it produces 230 V AC. Inverters are designed for stand-alone as well as for
grid-connected systems.
• Inverter size =Total power consumed by AC Loads*Safety Factor
=1100*1.5 =1650w
Safety Factor =1.5
 How to select
The efficiency of different types of solar inverters.
• Since efficiency is the soul of every solar inverter, it is necessary to stress
this point when you choose your inverter.

Take notice of the important parameter of each solar inverter.

• Input DC voltage,
• output AC voltage,
• frequency,
Under-sizing Your Inverter

• the maximum power output of your system (in kilowatts – kW)

assigned by the size of your inverter. Not enough solar array
Make sure the inverter you choose has stout
features.

• Solar inverters are often installed outside a building.

• If so, they must be strong enough to protect themselves from different
weather conditions.
• raises the PV system’s voltage, and low temperature makes
• If the maximum voltage specification is exceeded, the inverter may get
damaged or become even worse.
• When the system’s voltage is too low, the inverter might stop working.
• IP65 tech is a method that makes sure the inverter will seldom be affected
by terrible weather conditions.
Examine the inverter’s cooling system.

• A cooling system is needed for any electrical devices. For a solar

inverter which might be installed outside a house or in the open air, it
can produce lots of heat from sunlight and working.
• Due to this concern, you must choose an inverter equipped with a
cooling system which works efficiently.
Read its instruction and parameter carefully.

• An instruction tells you the basic information about the inverter.

• By reading its parameter, you will learn its size and basic structure.
• Some suppliers also tell you where its inverter is suitable to be
installed. So, this process is important too.
warranties and services the supplier offers

• Although major services are clearly displayed, they might have some
differences from what you think.
• Therefore, please contact them and inquire the exact information you
need for the specific product you choose.
Advantages of inverter with parallel function

• Increase output power:

• By connecting multiple inverters together and running in parallel, the
output power can be effectively increased.
• This is particularly important for large photovoltaic power stations or
solar systems for industrial use.
• to meet the large power demand.
• Improve system reliability:
• When one of the inverters fails or needs maintenance, the other
inverters can still work normally, ensuring the continuous power
supply of the system. This redundant design can reduce system
downtime and improve system reliability and stability.
• Better monitoring and management:
• This monitoring and management function helps to discover and
solve problems in a timely manner, and improves the maintenance
efficiency and operation effect of the system.
• Reduce system costs:
• Parallel inverters can reduce the cost of the system. Compared with
the use of multiple inverters alone, inverter parallel can reduce the
number of equipment and installation complexity of the power
system, thereby reducing the cost and footprint of the system.
What is Parallel Inverter

• This relies on the communication between parallel inverters, which is

typically achieved through a shared communication bus, such as Ethernet
or RS-232.
• This bus facilitates data exchange, allowing inverters to synchronize and
monitor each other's performance.
• They use standardized communication protocols such as Modbus or CAN.
• Data transmitted includes power output, voltage, current, and operating
status. Inverters need to work together, ensuring they produce power at
the same frequency and phase.
• follow manufacturer guidelines during installation for correct
communication parameter settings and hardware choices.
• Configure the Inverters
• Access the configuration settings of both inverters and set them to
work in parallel mode. The process for configuring parallel operation
may vary depending on the brand and model of the inverters. Refer to
the manufacturer’s instructions for guidance on this step.

• Monitoring and Control

• Hybrid inverters often come with monitoring and control systems.
Set up and configure these systems according to the manufacturer’s
instructions. These systems will allow you to manage and monitor
the parallel operation effectively.
Microinverters

• A microinverter is a device that converts the DC output of solar

modules into AC that can be used by the home.
• As the name suggests, they are smaller than the typical solar power
inverter, coming in at about the size of a WiFi router.
• Microinverters are usually placed under each solar panel,
Central (or string) inverters

• A central inverter, commonly referred to as a string inverter, is a

device that converts the DC output of a string of solar panels into AC
for home or commercial use.
• These inverters are typically larger and are installed at a central
location, often near the home’s main electrical panel or on an
external wall.
 a few essential job duties for solar inverters.
• 1. Convert Direct Current to Alternate Current
• 2. Maximize Power Output mppt
• Solar inverters continually keep track of the solar array’s voltage to discover the
maximum power at which the modules can function. If modules are degraded, or
shading happens from environmental factors,
• 3. Interface with The Grid
• One of these grid-assistance functionalities is the ability to ride through minimal
disturbances, such as voltage change. A smart inverter can turn into standby mode in
the event of a voltage change and assess how long the disturbance occurs, and switch
off if it persists.

• 4. Report on Power Production

• 5. Ensure Safe System Operation
• Solar inverters are required to switch off in case of an electric arc, which is possible
What Is the Right Size Solar Inverter?
• Choosing the right size solar inverter is critical to ensure that your system is efficient
and effective.

• It’s essential to choose an inverter that is large enough to handle the output of your
solar panels but not so large that you are wasting money on excess capacity. If you
choose an inverter that’s too small, it may not be able to handle the output of your PV
panels, leading to reduced performance and efficiency.

• On the other hand, if you choose an inverter that’s too large, you’ll be paying for
excess capacity that you don’t need.
Choosing the Best Solar Inverter

• When choosing a solar inverter, there are several important factors to consider:

• The size of your PV solar panel system

• Your energy consumption needs
• Whether you want to be off-grid or grid-tied
• Your budget
• It is also a good idea to research and compare different brands and models to find
the one that best meets your needs and budget. Consult with a solar installation
professional to get expert advice on the best inverter for your specific situation.

• Choose an inverter that is reliable and has a good warranty, as inverters can be
expensive to repair or replace if they malfunction or fail.
• DC-DC Step-Down Converter
• A DC-DC step-down converter takes the high voltage of PV panels (often 50+ volts) and steps it
down to the 48V.

• DC-DC Battery Charger with MPPT

• The DC-DC battery charger with MPPT (multi-power point tracking) allows the battery bank to be
charged directly by other DC power sources, such as a car alternator or a service battery.

• MPPT Solar Charge Controller

• The integrated MPPT charge controller allows for safe, efficient charging of your battery bank
using the power generated by your solar array.

• Solar Inverter Charger

• The inverter charger allows your system to charge and function using AC power.
Which inverter is best for solar?

• PV solar panel system size, your energy consumption needs, whether you want
to be off-grid or grid-tied, and your budget.
Can a solar inverter work without a
battery?
• Grid-tied inverters do not require a battery, as they are connected to the utility
grid and send excess electricity to the grid.

• On the other hand, off-grid inverters require a solar battery to store excess
electricity.

• Some hybrid inverters can work with or without a battery, but most need the grid
to be operational to function.
8 Key Things of Selecting a Right Solar Inverter
1. Stability of output voltage

• In photovoltaic systems, the electrical energy generated by solar cells is first stored in
storage batteries and then converted into 220V or 380V AC by solar inverters.
• However, influenced by the charge and discharge of storage batteries themselves,
storage batteries vary widely in the output voltage.
• For example, storage batteries with 12V of nominal value can vary between 10.8V
and 14.4V in the voltage (beyond this range, storage batteries may be damaged).
• For a qualified solar inverter, when the input voltage varies within this range, the
variation of steady-state output voltage should not exceed 5% of the rated value.
Meanwhile, when the load suddenly changes, the deviation of output voltage should
not exceed 10% of the rated value.
2. Waveform distortion of output voltage

• For sine wave inverters, the maximum allowable waveform distortion

(or harmonic content) should be specified.
• In general, it is expressed by the total waveform distortion of the
output voltage, which should not exceed 5% (10% is allowed for
single-phase output).
• Since the high-order harmonic current output by inverters will
produce eddy current and other additional losses on the inductive
load, excessive waveform distortion of inverters will cause serious
heating to load components, which is not conducive to the safety of
electrical equipment and affects the operational efficiency of the
system.
3. Rated output frequency

• For loads including motors, such as washing machines and

refrigerators, too high or too low frequency will cause the equipment
to heat up and reduce the efficiency and service life of the system,
because their optimal frequency is 50Hz.
• Therefore, the output frequency of solar inverters should be a
relatively stable value, which is generally 50Hz, and the deviation
should be less than 1% under normal working conditions.
 4. Load power factor
• Power inverters have the ability of inductive load or capacitive load, while the
load power factor of sine wave inverters ranges from 0.7 to 0.9 with a rated value
of 0.9.
• When the load power is fixed, if the power factor of the inverter is low, the
required capacity of the power inverter will increase.
• the cost will increase. increase the loss and decrease the efficiency of the system.
5. Solar inverter efficiency
• solar inverter efficiency refers to the ratio of output power to input power under
specified working conditions, which is expressed in percentage. In general, the
nominal efficiency of photovoltaic inverters refers to the efficiency under 80% of
pure resistance load.
• At present, the nominal efficiency of mainstream inverters is between 80% and
95%. For low-power inverters, the efficiency is not less than 85%.
 6. Rated output current (or rated output capacity)

• Rated output current refers to the rated output current of the solar
inverter within the range of specified load power factor.
• Some solar inverters offer rated output capacity in the unit of VA or
KVA. Rated output capacity of the inverter refers to the product of the
rated output voltage and the rated output current when the output
power factor is 1.
 7. Protection measures

• 1). Input under-voltage protection

• When the input voltage is less than 85% of the rated voltage, the inverter
should be protected and displayed with a prompt.
• 2). Input over-voltage protection
• When the input voltage is more than 130%, the solar inverter should be
protected and displayed with a prompt.
• 3). Over-current protection
• Over-current protection of inverters should ensure timely operation when
short-circuit occurs or current exceeds the allowable value, so as to avoid the
damage of surge current.
• When the working current exceeds 150% of the rated value, the converter
should be able to automatically protect itself.
• 4). Output short-circuit protection
should not exceed 0.5s.
• 5). Input converse-connection protection
When the positive and negative poles of the input end are inversely
connected, the inverters should have protective function and display.
• 6). Lightning protection
• 7). Over-temperature protection

8. Noise
Transformers, filters, inductors, electromagnetic switches and fans in power
and electronic devices all produce noise.
In normal operation, solar inverters should not produce more than 80dB of
noise and small-scale inverters should not produce more than 65dB of noise.
 Low-frequency inverters more than high-frequency
inverter
peak power capacity and reliability.
• Low-frequency inverters have much greater peak power capacity to handle large
loads with power spikes than high-frequency inverters. In fact, low-frequency
inverters can operate at the peak power level which is up to 200% of their
nominal power level for several seconds, while high-frequency inverters can
operate at 150% power level for a small fraction of a second. (electric motors like
power tools, washing machines, and air conditioners.)
• low-frequency inverters operate using powerful transformers, which are more
reliable and sturdy than the high-frequency inverter’s
• low-frequency inverters can sustain verse grid inputs conditions, like voltage
fluctuations, high voltage spikes, and lightning. But high-frequency inverters
cannot sustain the same.
• Low frequency ---- suitable solar power system,
 High frequency inverter
• 1. Less expensive than low-frequency inverters.
• 2. have smaller footprints,
• 3. a lower tolerance for industrial loads.
• 4. can operate at 200% of nominal power
• 5. Lightweight,
• 6. For small home applicances, computers. Tool battery chargers,
• 7. high efficiency of up to 90 -95 %
• 8. Electronics type
Low-frequency inverters
• 1. peak power capacity, and reliability.
• 2. all-round and more reliable power source
• 3. to deal with higher power spikes for longer periods of time than high-frequency inverters.
• 4. can operate at the peak power level which is up to 300% of their nominal power level for several seconds,
• 5. Heavier
• 6. high surge capacity can carry most heavy loads, high power demands, such as power tools, washing machines,
and air conditioners. motors, compressors, lifts.
• 7. efficiency 60% to 90%
• 8. Transformer type
A Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) charge controller also works similarly
with the PWM controller but operates on a wider and higher input voltage from the
solar modules.
 Charge Controller
It is an electronic device whose functions are:
• there is a need for a control unit to control the discharging and charging
processes
• To reduce battery maintenance (topping up) by controlling gassing (water loss)
during charging
• To charge at pre-set voltages to prolong battery life and avoid damage to
sensitize loads
• To facilitate interconnection between modules, battery and loads
• System status monitoring and indication
Features of a Charge Controller
• Low Voltage (Load) Disconnect (LVD) battery
• High Voltage (Panel) Disconnect (HVD) PV
• Indication of battery charging current
• Indication of battery voltage
 Controller Ampere Size
• The charge controller has to have enough ampere capacity to pass the
maximum current that the system can provide / consume.
• This can be estimated by dividing the peak-watt rating of the panels by battery
12 V, and the result multiplied by 1.2 for maximum radiation that can be
attained. So a controller connected to a 100 W panel should have a charging
capacity of at least 100 ÷ 12 = 8.33 *1.2 A.
• The minimum ampere capacity of a controller should be equal to the sum of
the amperes from all appliances times 1.5, plus the amperes from all
appliances with motors times 3.
• For example, four lights of 12 W capacity have a total operating load of 4 A. So
the controller should have a capacity of at least 4 A × 1.5 = 6 A
 Example

• Controller Capacity =Total power from the panel*Safety Factor

Voltage of the system
=300W*1.2 =30A
12
(Safety Factors =1.2)
 5. BATTERY
Batteries
•Depth of discharge (DOD) of battery
•Max DC voltage.
•Voltage and the ampere-hour (Ah) capacity of battery.
•Number of days of autonomy.
Power Consumption in ideal state at night.
•Power consumption during operation.
The battery capacity Watt Hr Storage= (Daily watt hr consumption
X Days of Autonomy)/ ( Inverter Efficiency* Depth of discharge)
Battery Capacity (in Ah) = Watt Hr Storage / Battery voltage/
Battery efficiency
No of Batteries= Total AH / AH per battery.
 Cycle Depth
• Discharging and then charging back up to the state of charge at the start is called
a cycle.
• Depth of discharge (DoD) in one cycle not always down to 0% state of charge.

CYCLE LIFE
• Cycle life = number of cycles obtained from a battery before capacity is
reduced to 80% of its value when new.
• Number of cycles depends on: cycle depth, discharge current and
temperature.
• Increasing the depth of discharge decreases cycle life.
• Increasing the number of cycles performed per year decreases cycle life.
 Capacity
• Battery capacity is measured in Ampere-hour (Ah)
• Measure of amount of electric energy or charge stored in a battery
• Capacity = fixed current drawn x number of hours before the battery reaches
complete discharge
(Example: capacity of 100 Ah = (10 A x 10 h) = (20 A x 5 h)
• Energy stored = Ah x voltage (assume voltage remains constant)
• Charging efficiency = charge energy added by the source / charge energy used by
the charger.
• Example 80% charging efficiency --- 0.8 of the charge into the battery is recovered
during discharge.
(many factors, power source, battery temperature and ambient
temperature.)
 Charging and Discharging of Battery
• The voltage of the battery terminals changes during charging and discharging
• For a fully charged Pb-acid cell the voltage is about 2.12 volts
• During discharge voltage drops
• During charging the voltage rises
• Continuous charging may lead to undesirable overcharge. H2 and O2 are released visible
as bubbles electrolyte level decreases while the density is raised.
• Charge controllers maintain the voltage within the required threshold levels (minimum
and maximum).
 Over-charging
• Excessive overcharging leads to increase corrosion of electrodes, active
material shedding and shortens life
• leads to gassing decomposition of H2O into H2 (bubbles on negative
electrode) & O2 (bubbles on positive electrode)
• Electrolyte becomes more concentrated water must be replaced when the
level drops.
• Batteries have vents to allow gas to escape
• sealed batteries do not have vent as gas due to overcharging is absorbed
internally.
• Overcharging may lead to decomposition of electrodes of lead-acid
batteries.
 Self-discharge
• Takes place when not in use
• Rate of self discharge – Expressed as amount of charge – Given as percentage of
capacity, lost over a period e.g. many days or month
Voltage Characteristics
• Batteries have nominal voltage (VN) but varies operation:
• Open Voltage (Voc) at zero current
• Load voltage (Vl): voltage drawn by loads during discharging
• Charging voltage (Vch): voltage when the battery is being charged
• Voltages depend on: SOC, temperature, charging current
• Most solar batteries have nominal voltages: 12 V, 24V, 48V
 Battery Size
• the battery should be of the deep-discharge type and be large enough to
store enough energy to operate the appliances at night and on cloudy
days.
• for the battery to last a long time, it should not be discharged too much or
too often.
• battery life depends on how much discharge takes place before a
recharge.
• Should no more than one-fifth of its full charge.
• The rule for battery size is to install a battery that has at least five times
needed to operate the appliances for one day.
 Summary of Battery size calculation

• Step 1. Calculate the watt-hours per day used by each appliance

• Step 2. Total the watt-hours per day used by all appliances.
• Step 3. Multiply the total appliance watt-hours per day by Number of Backup Days:
(Decide how many days you want your system to function without sunlight, which
influences the needed capacity.)
• Step 4. Divide the result of Step 3 by the battery voltage.

Batteries needed (Ah) = (Daily consumption (Ah) X Backup days X Annual correction
factor 1.15) / DOD (%).
Battery life and Solar Panel size
• It has been shown that increasing the panel size increases battery life,
• With the cost of solar panel capacity falling but the cost of batteries
slowly increasing, it makes good economic sense to increase the
panel size by 20% to 30% over the minimum.
• This can dramatically improve the reliability of the system during
cloudy weather and can greatly extend the life of the battery.
• This reduces the cost over time as battery replacements are now the
most expensive component in a home PV system.
• Cycle life = number of cycles obtained from a battery before capacity is
reduced to 80% of its value when new.
• Number of cycles depends on: DOD, discharge current and temperature.
• Increasing the depth of discharge decreases cycle life.
• Increasing the number of cycles performed per year decreases cycle life.
• (Charging current should be 1/10 of batteries Ah)
200Ah x (1/10) = 20A
• Charging Time required for Battery
Charging Time of battery = Battery Ah / Charging Current
MONITORING AND CONTROLS
• Voltage and current
• Temperature
• Ampere-hour in and out of the battery
• SOC and discharge
• Rate of charge and discharge
• Depth of discharge
• Number of charge and discharge cycles
How to select battery
• 1. Rate of Discharge
A higher rate of discharge ------- greater energy storage capacity in the
battery.
• 2. Depth of Discharge (DOD)
• 3. Temperature
• 4. Individual Run Times
• 5. Peak Sun Hours
• 6. System Voltage Losses
occur during the conversion of current from DC to AC.
• 7. Size of Individual Loads
such as lights, refrigerators, and pumps.
• 8. Size of Overall Load
• 9. Efficiency of the Solar Array
 Types of Solar Batteries

LITHIUM LEAD ACID SEALED AGM GEL

Cost High Low Moderate High
Cost per kWh cycle Lowest Low Low to moderate Moderate
Expected Lifespan 10+ years 3-5 years 4-5 years 5-6 years
Max recommended DoD 80% 50% 50% 50%

Regular Maintenance None Watering, equalizing, None None

cleaning
Best Applications All renewable Full time residences with Part-time residences Part-time residences
energy systems committed, hands-on with intermittent use without many high-
owners willing to do surge loads
regular maintainance and
replacement

Worst Applications Projects on a tight Part-time residences with Systems requiring Systems requiring
budget intermittent use deep discharges high amperage
charging and
discharging
Flooded Lead Acid
•Lowest upfront cost
•Typical lifespan: 5-7 years
•Requires maintenance - add distilled water and
equalize charge on a monthly basis
•Enclosure needs to be vented outside to expel built-
up hydrogen gas
Sealed Lead Acid
More expensive
•Typical lifespan: 3-5 years
•No maintenance
•Enclosure should still be vented,
batteries could off gas in certain
conditions
Lithiun
• Most expensive
• Typical lifespan: 10+ years
• No maintenance, no venting
• Highest efficiency, faster charging, more
usable capacity (deeper discharge depth)
 Number of the Batteries
• Let us consider we have batteries of 12 V, 100 Ah with DOD of 70%.
• Thus, the usable capacity of the is 100 Ah × 0.70 = 70 Ah.
• Therefore, the charged capacity that is required is determined as follows;
• Required charge capacity = 3000 Wh/ 24 V = 125 Ah
• No. of batteries required = 125 Ah / (100 × 0.7) = 1.78 (round off 2 batteries)
• Thus, 2 batteries of 12 V, 100 Ah are required. But (70*2= 140 Ah) instead of
125 Ah.
• Required charge capacity = 2 × 100Ah × 0.7 = 140 Ah ( just 12V)
• We need 24V
• So, in total there will be four batteries of 12 V, 100 Ah. Two connected in
series and two connected in parallel.
 Battery BMS
• 1. Cell Monitoring: The BMS constantly monitors the voltage
levels of each cell to ensure they remain balanced.
This prevents overcharging or undercharging of individual
cells, which can lead to reduced capacity or even damage.
• 2. Temperature Sensors: To prevent overheating, temperature
sensors are strategically placed within the battery pack.
The BMS uses this data to regulate charging rates and
activate cooling mechanisms if necessary.
• 3. State-of-Charge Estimation: By analyzing various factors such
as voltage, current flow, and temperature, it provides real-
time information on how much energy remains in the battery.
• 4. Safety Features: like short-circuit protection and
overcurrent protection.
 6. The cable and protection systems
• The efficiency and quality of a system are measured by the efficiency
and quality of each individual component.
• Protection of DC and AC system
• cable of Solar PV, string and connector
• Earthing and LA
• fuses and fuse holders,
• circuit breakers
• Isolating safety switches,
• combination box
• surge protection device
• RCCB
protection of dc and ac in solar power system
• from lightning strikes by using a proper solar surge protection
device.
• a specific DC SPD is required, and the same is for the AC side.
• Using an SPD on the wrong AC or DC side is dangerous under
fault conditions.
SPD
Number of SPD
• The number of SPDs installed in a solar PV system varies
depending on the distance between the panel and the
inverter.
• When the DC cable length between solar panels is
under 10 meters: 1 SPD should be installed by the
inverter, combiner boxes, or closer to the solar panels.
• When DC cabling is over 10 meters: more SPD are
required at both the inverter and solar modules end of
the cables.
 Protection of DC
• A DC SPD is a critical component in solar PV systems, designed to
protect the system's components from damage due to power
surges.
• Surges can be triggered by various events such as lightning
strikes, disruptions in the power grid, and large electrical load
switching within a building.
• Solar SPDs should always be installed upstream of the
devices they will protect, its installation depends on
three values:
• Maximum continuous operating voltage
• Voltage protection level
• Nominal discharge current
Types of Protections
• At the grid connection point: - Type 1 SPD will be installed if the
distance from the grid connection point to the power conversion unit
is less than 10 meters.
• If the distance is larger than 10 meters, an additional Type 2 must be
installed upstream the AC input of the power conversion unit, as close
as possible to the AC output of the power point.
• Every DC input of the power conversion unit must be protected by a
Type 2 arrester.
• If power conversion units are connected to data lines, SPDs must also
be installed.
 The Surge Protection Device (SPD)
• The Type 1 SPD is recommended in the specific case of service-sector and
industrial buildings,
• Type 2 SPD is the main protection system for all AC low voltage electrical
installations. Installed in each electrical switchboard ( without LA scope)
• Type 3 SPDs have a low discharge capacity. They must therefore
mandatorily be installed as a supplement to Type 2 SPD and in the
sensitive loads.
The electrical installation protection system
• one or more SPDs depending on the building configuration;
• number of poles in SPD;
• voltage protection level --Up
• operating voltage Uc.
 Installation of SPDs
• SPD to the loads should be as short as possible in order to reduce
the value of the voltage protection level (installed Up)
• The total length of SPD connections to the network and the earth
terminal block should not exceed 50 cm.(4 mm²(Cu))
Solar inverter
 PV modules and Inverter Lightning rod (on
Location Inverter ac side
array boxes dc side dc side the mainboard)

Length of
<10M >10M n/a <10M >10M Yes No
cables

Type 2 if
Type of Dist > 10M
Type 1 Type 2 Type 2 Type 1 Type 2 Type 1
SPD to use to the grid
line
Multi-level protection

Incoming
protection

If distance > 10m

Fine protection

Equipment to be
protected
Circuit Breaker
Main LV switchboard

This is the "air circuit breaker" field

Sub distribution board

➢Medium nominal current (hundreds Amps, 40°C)

➢High level of short-circuits (up to 150kA)

➢Limitation of the effects of the electrical faults

➢Frequent operations

➢No need of maintenance

➢Additional functions (auxiliaries/accessories)

➢Selectivity
Sub distribution board

This is the "moulded case circuit breaker" field

Final distribution board
➢Device shall comply with domestic and industrial standards

➢Low current (up to 125 A , 20°, 30°, 40°C)

➢Limitation of the effects of the electrical faults

➢From low level to Medium level of short-circuits (from 3 to 50

kA)

➢No need of maintenance additional functions (as auxiliaries and

accessories)

➢Selectivity not required

Final distribution board

This is the "miniature

circuit breaker"
 What is discrimination?
◼ Total discrimination ◼ No discrimination

CB1 CB1
CB1 and CB2
trip

Only CB2 trips

CB2 CB2

The power supply The power supply

to the other to the other
feeders is still feeders is no
ensured longer ensured

Confidential Property of Schneider Electric

 Discrimination
◼ Total discrimination ◼ Partial discrimination

C C C no intersection
C C C
B3 B2 B1 B3 B2 B1

CB1

CB2

CB3
intersection
I threshold (selectivity
CB2 and CB3 limit current)

trip

Confidential Property of Schneider Electric

Lightning and surge protection
• There is definitely a correlation between solar radiation,
humidity and lightning frequency.
• Solar farm sites are selected for their high solar radiation, and
the high humidity means they are more susceptible to lightning.
• Direct strike
• Indirect strike
• LPS
AC and DC Disconnects are Essential in Solar PV
• basically an DC disconnection that can occur at the modules or within a few
feet.
• In the event of severe weather, like hurricanes, electrical storms, clients can
safely disconnect their system at the DC disconnects to reduce the damage
caused by bad weather to their inverter and even the house’s interior
wiring.
• Utilizing the AC disconnects is helpful in the occurrence of a fire to stop the
inflow of power, and this can reduce the spreading of fire and avoid the
threat of electrocution to those entering the house.
• In the occurrence of a flood, the ability to shut off the power source is
crucial. Fortunately, you can use AC and DC disconnects in this emergency.
• If there’s crew working in the area, the ability to disconnect your solar
system PV panel from the grid is a critical safety feature.
 Isolator
• DC Isolator: The DC isolator provides a safe means of disconnecting the
solar array from the inverter, for example for periodic maintenance.
Some inverters have integrated DC isolators.

• AC Isolator: A main isolator is included to provide a means of

disconnecting the solar PV system from the building electricity supply.
This may be important if there is an emergency, but (more usually) is
needed when electricians have to do work on the building supply.
A solar DC Isolator switch
• It stops electricity generated through a PV system
• it prevents excessive current flow and damage to equipment in
the event of safe servicing and maintenance of your system.
 how to choose a suitable PV DC
isolating switch
• 1. System Voltage Selection
• 2. The Number of Strings to be Isolated
• 3. Rated Current & Voltage of String of Panels
• 4. Environment and Installation
The working environment temperature, protection level and fire
protection level
an ambient temperature of -40°C to 60°C.
reaches IP65.
Isolation
Isolation
What Is A Solar Combiner Box?

• A solar combiner box combines the output from multiple

PV modules into one wire that can be connected to an
inverter.
• This eliminates the need for running multiple cables into
the inverter, saving money on materials and labor.
• E.g. 10 in 1 out
• String ampere
 String Combiner Boxes
•Various Components of a SCB.
• Surge Protection Devices (SPD).
Terminal Blocks
•Fuse Blocks.
•DC Switch / Circuit breaker.
Combination Box
Advantages And Disadvantages Of
Solar Combiner Boxes
• 1. Flexibility
• 2.Convenience
• 3. Reliability
• 4. Safety Combiner boxes include safety features such as
fuses or circuit breakers, which protect your system from
damage due to overcurrent or short circuits.
• 5. Efficiency
the number of wires connecting to your inverter
is reduced – especially with larger solar panel systems.
 DC Solar PV Combiner Box with Surge
Protection

1 String Input
1 String Output
Combination box
DC Cables
• solar cables are designed to be UV & Ozone resistant, chemical and
mineral oil resistant, with excellent Fire-Resistant properties with very
little smoke when burned with a heat (fire) outside.
• not only strong but also weather-resistant.
• can withstand stress from compression, bending or stretching,
and chemical stress in the form of Acids, Alkaline solution, and
Saltwater.
 DC Cables
• PV Module Cables: connect the solar panels to the charge
controller, which regulates the flow of power to the battery bank.
PV module cables are typically 10-12 AWG (American Wire
Gauge), double-insulated solar cables designed to handle the DC
output from solar panels.
• Battery Cables/ Inverter Cables Battery cables connect the
battery bank to the charge controller and the inverter. They are
responsible for carrying the DC power between these
components. Battery cables are generally larger in size, ranging
from 2-4/0 AWG, depending on the system capacity and the
current they need to carry.
 DC Cabling and Connectors
•Size of cable (4 mm & 6 mm).
•Specification of Cables,
•Wiring of DC cables.
•Avoid looping.
•Parallel and Series connections.
•Lying of DC cables.
•Different types of Connectors.
•DC Copper Cable.
•DC Loss Calculation.
Limited distance
DC electricity has a significantly limited distance in voltage drop
compared to AC electricity.
Cable size
• Voltage drop: To maintain efficient power transmission and
minimize energy loss, For DC cables in solar systems, aim for a
voltage drop of less than 3%, while for AC cables, a drop of less than
5% is acceptable.
• Current carrying capacity: A cable’s current carrying capacity is
determined by its cross-sectional area, and larger cables can handle
higher currents. When selecting a cable, ensure its capacity is greater
than the maximum current expected in the system.
• Length of the cable run: The distance between components in the
solar system, such as solar panels, charge controllers, batteries, and
inverters, influences the cable size selection. Longer cable runs
increase the resistance and result in higher voltage drops.
Sizing of the Cables
• Routes (minimum utilization of cables and lower voltage drop in
cables.)
• Cables The voltage drop between the PV array and the inverter must
be calculated and this must not exceed 3% for nominal current.
• The DC cables used should be double-insulated single wire cables
• The derated rating is calculated by taking a 25% margin.
Derated Ampere = 1.25 x Max Ampere
AWG Cross-sectional Resistance Maximum Derated
Area (mm²) (ohm/km) Amperage Ampacity (A)

18 0.823 39.7 7.5 6.0

16 1.31 25.0 10 8.0
14 2.08 15.8 15 12.0
12 3.31 10.0 20 16.0
10 5.26 6.3 30 24.0
8 8.37 4.0 40 32.0
6 13.3 2.5 55 44.0
4 21.2 1.6 70 56.0
2 33.6 1.0 95 76.0
1 42.4 0.794 110 88.0
1/0 53.5 0.628 125 100.0
 Example
• 4 solar panels, each with 540W power output, Imp = 12.96A, Vmp =
41.7V, Isc = 13.64A, Voc = 49.5V
• Panels are connected in 2 strings of 2 panels each (series-parallel
configuration)
• 48V battery bank with a capacity of 400Ah
• MPPT charge controller with a maximum input current of 40A
• 48V inverter with a maximum input current of 100A
• Cable lengths: 15M (solar panels to charge controller), 2M (charge
controller to battery bank), 1M (battery bank to inverter)
• Allowable voltage drop: 3%
• Step 1: Determine the total current
• Total power of the solar array (two strings of two panels each):
• 4 panels * 540W = 2160W
• Voltage of one string (two panels in series):
• Vmp = 41.7V * 2 = 83.4V
• Current of one string (two panels in parallel):
• Imp = 12.96A * 2 = 25.92A
 Step 2: Calculate the wire resistance
• Wire resistance can be calculated by using Ohm’s Law (R = V/I)
• Resistance per kilometer (R/km) = R / Cable length in km
• Solar panel to charge controller (15m):
• Voltage drop allowed (3%) = 0.03 * 83.4V = 2.502V
• R = 2.502V / 25.92A = 0.0965 ohms
• Resistance per kilometer = 0.0965 ohms * 1.000 /0. 015km = 6.43 ohms/km
• Charge Controller to Battery Bank (2m):
• Battery bank voltage: 48V and Maximum charge current: 40A (charge controller)
• Voltage drop = (3% of 48V) = 0.03 * 48V = 1.44V
• R = 1.44V / 40A = 0.036 ohms
• Resistance per kilometer = 0.036 ohms / 0.002 km = 18 ohms/km
• Battery Bank to Inverter (1m):
• Inverter input voltage: 48V and Maximum input current: 100A
• Voltage drop = (3% of 48V) = 0.02 * 48V = 1.44V
• R = 1.44V / 100A = 0.0144 ohms
• Resistance per kilometer = 0.0144 ohms / 0.001 km = 14.4 ohms/km
Step 3: Determine the wire gauge using the AWG table
• Find the AWG value with a resistance closest to or lower than
the calculated resistance per kilometer for each segment.
• Solar panel to charge controller (6.43 ohms/km):
• From the AWG table, select a copper cable with resistance <=
6.43 ohms/km and derated amperage >= 25.92A. A suitable
choice would be AWG 8, with a resistance of 4 ohms/km and
adjusted amperage of 32A.
• Charge controller to battery bank (18 ohms/km):
• AWG 14
• Battery bank to inverter (14.4 ohms/km):
• 12 AWG,
To reduce the voltage drop in AC grid
systems:
1.Minimize the length of the solar system wiring run.
2.Be strategic in the inverter placement. AC wiring from the inverter
to service panel is often more vulnerable to voltage drop.
3.the charge controller should be mounted within a yard or meter of
the batteries.
4.Use a larger wire size. The bigger the wire, the less resistance.
 DC PLUG AND SOCKET CONNECTORS
• (MC3 or MC4 connectors) Such connectors
provide a secure, durable, and effective
electrical contact. They also simplify and
increase the safety of installation works.
• DC Plugs and socket connectors shall comply
with the requirements of BS EN 50521. ‘Do not
disconnect DC plugs and sockets under load’.
Cable connectors shall not be used as the means
for DC switching or isolation under load since
arcing can cause permanent damage to some
connectors.
MC4 Connector Specifications

Rated for 30 amps max (the connector itself, not the wire)
Rated for 1,000 volts max
Rated temperature range: -40 degrees C to +90 degrees C (-40 F
to 194 F)

Note: Do not cut the MC4 connectors off of your solar modules.
That voids the warranty of most manufacturers.
 Building MC4
• There is a specific crimper and cutter used
to crimp MC4 connector contacts to the
wire.
• The MC4 Disconnect tool also acts as a
wrench to tighten the lock ring on the
connector.
• You can use one to hold the connector in
place and the other to tighten the lock ring.
FIRE PREVENTION CONSIDERATION
• Specifying and installing the proper DC overcurrent protection.
• Ensuring the correct ratings are used for the DC cables, combiner boxes
and switch disconnectors etc.
• Ensuring all connections are tightened and torqued in accordance with
manufacturer specifications.
• Ensuring that used inverters have a built in DC arc detection capabilities.
• Ensuring that double insulated cables are used throughout the DC circuit
to greatly minimize the risk of parallel arcs between conductors, or via an
earth path.
• Minimize as much as possible the length of the DC cables from the
inverters and avoid installing DC cables in walls or hidden in the building
structure.
 Types of RCD
• Type AC RCD are suitable for general use and cover most of the
applications in practice.
• Type A In addition to the detection characteristics of type AC RCDs, Type A
RCDs detect pulsating DC residual current. for single phase electronic loads.
• Type F RCD In addition to the detection characteristics of type A RCDs,type,
F RCDs are specially designed for circuit protection where single phase
variable speed drivers could be used. (washing machine, air conditioner,)
• Type B RCD to be used for loads with three-phase rectifier, such as variable
speed drives, PV system, EV charging station and medical equipment.
Earth conductor
Breaking of the neutral conductor
• In TN-C
• The neutral conductor must not be open-circuited
under any circumstances since it constitutes a PE as
well as a neutral conductor.
• In TT, TN-S
• In the event of a fault, the circuit breaker will open all
poles, including the neutral pole, i.e. the circuit
breaker is omnipolar
SYSTEM EARTHING AND EQUIPOTENTIAL
BONDING
PV Plant Earthing
• 1. DC Earthing in PV: Generally for the 1MW PV Plant,
Maximum Six to Eight earth pits for the DC Area (PV Area)
are used
• 2. AC Earthing : For the PV Plant based on the Short Circuit
level of the System. Each Central Inverter should be
earthed with two individual earth pits which is bonded
with other earthing systems .
• 3. Special Earthing Earthing for the SCADA, CCTV &
Weather Monitoring Station. It should be combined with
main earthing.
Earthing and bonding methods for PV
modules
fuse
• NH00 Fuses
• Use these fuses for 48V lithium systems.
• They are suited for a maximum of 250VDC.

• Maximum series fuse rating Defines maximum back up fuse rating to

avoid overload of inverse current blocking diodes and current carrying
path
•
Choosing a fuse for your DC
• Minimum fuse size is based on the load.
• Maximum fuse size is based on the current capacity of the wire.
• need to select a fuse in between these two.

• Single Series String (fusing not required)

• Two Strings in Parallel (fusing not required)

• Three or More Strings in Parallel (fusing required)

Three or More Strings in Parallel (fusing
required)
• In this scenario, a fault in one string will be subjected to the
maximum circuit currents of all other connected strings, with each
string delivering current = 1.25 x Isc under worst-case conditions.
• The combined fault currents will be larger than the withstand rating
of the installed wiring sized at 1.56 x Isc as well as the series fuse
rating of the PV modules.
• Under this fault condition, both the conductors and PV modules
would be subject to damage, therefore, fusing is required by code.
How To Calculate Fuses For DC Wiring
Wires From The Charge Controller To Battery

40A x 1.25= 50A ( Factor = 1.25)

A wire that can carry 50A is 8AWG or 10mm².
The lowest fuse we can use is 50A.
The highest fuse we can use is 55A. This is the maximum current through the wire.
Since there is no 55Amps fuse, we will use a 50Amp fuse.

Wires From The Battery To The Inverter

Assume we have a 12V battery and a 1000W inverter. The maximum current the inverter can draw is:
1000W/12V=83A
83A*1.25=104A
We need to find a wire that can carry 104 amps.
This will be a 3AWG wire at 90° insulation. This wire can carry a maximum of 110A.
The minimum fuse size is 104A.
The maximum fuse size is 110A.
A 2AWG wire can carry a current of 130A at 90°C insulation.
Now we still keep the minimum fuse size of 104A, but the maximum fuse size increases to 130A.
A fuse fits 125A.
 Protection of PV modules against reverse
current
• There is no risk of reverse current when there is only one string
• open-circuit voltage of one string is significantly different from the open voltage of parallel
strings connected to the same inverter.
• Reverse current can lead to dangerous temperature rises and fires in the PV module.
• PV module withstand capability. 15A integrated anti-reverse current diode in solar
inverter.
 Bypassing Diodes
• The bypassing diode is used to
mitigate the negative impact of
shading on the solar panel or solar
array performance.
• When a solar cell or a solar panel has
been shaded, the resistance of the
corresponding cell or solar panel
increases highly.
 Outlines of
Solar power system design

1. Site assessment
2. Calculate Wattage of the Solar Panels
3. Off Grid Systems, On Grid System and hybrid system
4. Rating and Size of Inverter
5. Size, Rating & Nos of Batteries
6. Cable, CB, fuse, Isolator Switches, earthing, LA, SPD.
7. Sample solar power design
8. Mounting structure
9. Safety
10. Maintenance
7. Sample design
Assignments

• 1. space area
• 2. Load calculation
• 3. inverter
• 4. solar PV module
• 5. number of PV
• 6. number of string
 Space Example
we have 230 square meter shade free area on the roof top,
Space factor= 0.85, Panel module efficiency= 12%,
Plant efficiency= 85%, Peak sun hour = 4.5 hours.
So, capacity of PV plant= (0.85*230*0.12) = 23.46 kW
So, Daily Energy output= (23.46*0.85*4.5)= 90 kWh
Here, plant efficiency includes inverter losses,
temperature losses,
dc cable losses, ac cable losses,
dust, partial shading, weak irradiance etc.
 design
• Example, load calculation per day
• 10.96 kWh/day ÷ 6.5 sun-hours/day = 1.69 kW
• 1.69 kW ÷ 0.66 efficiency factor = 2.56 kW array
• Using the 2.56 kW size array
• assume the available module is rated at 240-watts/module. 2,560
watts ÷ 240-watts/module = 10.67 modules. round up to 11 modules.
Weather conditions are important
#Record low temperature determines the highest Voc of the
array, and therefore the maximum number of modules per
string not to exceed the inverter’s max input voltage.
#Record low temperature determines the highest Vmp of the
array, and therefore the maximum number of modules per
string not to exceed the inverter’s maximum MPPT voltage.
#Average/Record high temperature will determine the lowest
Vmp and therefore the minimum number of modules per string
not to fall below the inverter’s minimum MPPT voltage.
•Minimum no. of Panels in Series in each string=
• Maximum no. of Panels in Series in each string=
• Maximum no. of strings per Inverter=

Maximum Design current = S.C. Current of PV Panel × No. of

string × Safety Factor
Here, Safety factor= 1.25
 Solar Inverter String Design Calculations
• The voltage/current of the system will always be at it’s highest in the coldest
conditions.
• we need to know how many solar panels you intend to wire in series.
• Voltage Sizing:
• 1. Max panel’s voltage =Voc*(1+(Min.temp-25)*temperature
coefficient(Voc))
2. Max number of Solar panels=Max. inverter input voltage / Max panel’s
voltage
• Current Sizing:
• 1. Min panel’s current =Isc*(1+(Max.temp-25)*temperature coefficient(Isc))
2. Max number of strings=Max. input current / Min panel’s current
5 kW inverter
• Inverter A Maximum dc input voltage 500 V DC
• minimum starting voltage 220 V
• Continuous ac output power 4,600 W
• DC input voltage window 205 V - 450 V
• AC output voltage range 183 V – 229 V
Solar PV Module

• STC Power (Pmp) 240 W

• Maximum power voltage (Vmp) 29.86 V
• Maximum power current (Imp) 8.10 A
• Open-circuit voltage (Voc) 36.45 V
• Shor-circuit current (Isc) 8.59 A
• Temperature coefficients: TkVoc -0.32%/ o C TkVmp -0.42%/o C
 Location

• On average, the warmest month is July

• Average High Temperature : 34.0° C
• Recorded high Temperature was 47°C in 1925
• On average, the coolest month is December
• Average Low Temperature : 3.2°C
• Recorded low Temperature was -9°C in 1932
temperature
• Calculating the –temperature corrected maximum open circuit
voltage for the single module:
• Module Vocmax = Voc x [1 + (Tmin – Tstc) x (TkVoc)]
= 36.45 V x [1 + (-9* C – 25* C) x (-0.32 %/oC)]
= 36.45 V x [1 + (-34 x -0.0032)]
= 36.45 V x [1 +0.1088]
= 36.45 V x 1.1088
= 40.52 V
• Vmp = the module rated Vmp at Standard Test Condition (STC)
▪ Tmax = maximum expected temperature in degree C
▪ Tstc = the STC temperature at 25* C
▪ TkVmp = the temperature coefficient of Vmp as listed in the module specs
Minimum = 29.86 V x [1 + ((47* C – 25* C) x (-0.42%/o C)]
= 29.86 V x [1 + (22 x (-0.0042)]
= 29.86 V x [1 + (-0.0924)]
= 29.86 V x 0.9076
= 27.1 V
minimum module Vmp which may occur if operating on the hottest day.
205 V ÷ 27.1 = 7.56 = 8 modules
• Dividing the maximum inverter input voltage of 450 volts by the
module temperature-corrected Voc will provide the maximum
number of modules to be wired in series.
= 450 V ÷ 40.52 = 11.11 = 11 modules
Between 8 and 11
8. Solar Array Mounting
• A solar mounting system's main responsibility is to give solar
panels a stable base.
• The panels may be at danger of toppling if there is an
inadequate mounting mechanism in place, which might cause
harm and injury.
• The effectiveness of the solar panels is significantly influenced
by the mounting mechanism.
 Importance of solar panel mounting
structure
• Most people often ignore solar mounting and racking systems.
1. Solar panel mounting structure helps in installing the panels safely and
appropriately.
2.Provides a stable base for the solar panel.
3.The mounting structures are featured to withstand any rough environmental
conditions.
4.A strong mounting structure protects solar panels from any potential
damage.
5.It helps in reducing maintenance costs
6.The right angle of the structure allows solar panels to absorb maximum
solar irradiation.
7.The efficient design of the structure improves the ability to produce more
power with a solar panel system.
8.Easier and faster installation process.
9.Longer life sustainability.
 Important parameters to consider before
installing solar mounting structures
• Angle
• For a fixed roof-mounted solar system, the angle and latitude of the
installation site must be equal.
• Location
• Before installation, check the longitudinal and latitudinal location of your
site
• Direction
• South is the best direction that solar panels must face to absorb the
maximum sunlight. East and west directions are also good but don’t go
for the North direction as it will not work properly.
• Shade area
• Installation surface
• The surface of the solar mounting structure must be sturdy and smooth to
easily handle the weight of the entire solar system throughout its lifespan.
 Types of solar mounting systems
• Rooftop mounting systems
• Single-pile PV solar ground-mounted structures
• Double-pile PV solar ground-mounted structures
• Single-axis trackers
• This type of solar panel tracking system tilts the panel along a single axis
to examine the course of the sun across the sky. The tracking system can
change the angle of the panel using a motor and controller to increase
sunlight exposure.
• Dual-axis trackers
• This tracking system allows the solar panel to be tilted along 2 axis –
east-west and north-south to more correctly follow the path of the sun.
These trackers cost more than a single-axis but generate up to 40% more
power.
• Rope rack mounting structure
• Floating solar mounting structures
Array Mounting Structure

• • Thermal aspects — To allow expansion/contraction of

modules/structure.
• • Mechanical loads on PV structures — To comply with related
standards
• • Wind — shall be rated for the maximum expected wind speeds.
• • Material accumulation on PV array — Snow, ice, or other material.
• • Corrosion — Mounting shall be made from corrosion resistant
materials suitable for the lifetime and duty of the system.
Three main types of Solar Panel Mounting Systems

• roof mounts,
• ground mounts, and
• tracking systems
 Roof Mounts:
• There are two main types of roof mounts:
• Flush mounts: These mounts are installed parallel to the roof's surface and are ideal for flat
or low-sloped roofs. They are low-profile and blend seamlessly with the roof's aesthetics.
• Tilted mounts: Tilted mounts are adjustable, allowing panels to be tilted at an optimal angle
for maximum sun exposure. This option is suitable for roofs with moderate slopes.
• Advantages:
• Utilizes available roof space efficiently.
• Minimal land use, for urban areas.
• Requires no additional land or construction.
• Can improve the aesthetics of the building.
• Suitability:
• Residential rooftops with ample sunlight.
• Commercial and industrial buildings.
• Areas with limited ground space.
 Ground Mounts:
• Fixed-tilt ground mounts:
• Advantages:
• Optimal sun exposure throughout the day.
• Suitable for locations with shading issues.
• Easier maintenance and cleaning.
• Can be used in larger-scale solar farms.
• Suitability:
• Large-scale solar farms.
• Locations with limited roof space or shaded areas.
• Areas with open land available for installation.
Tracking Systems:
• Single-axis tracking: These systems follow the sun's east-to-west path, adjusting the
panel's tilt angle to capture more sunlight. They are less complex and more cost-effective
than dual-axis tracking systems.
• Dual-axis tracking: These systems not only follow the sun's east-west movement but
also adjust the panel's tilt to account for the sun's changing elevation throughout the day.
This results in maximum energy capture.
• Advantages:
• Can increase energy production by up to 25% compared to fixed-tilt systems.
• Ideal for areas with high solar variability.
• Suitable for commercial and utility-scale installations.
• Suitability:
• Large-scale solar farms.
• Areas with high solar variability.
• Locations with ample space for installation.
 Factors to Consider When Choosing a Mounting System

Factor Considerations
Location - Geographic Location: Assess wind speed, snow load, and seismic activity.
- Orientation and Tilt: Determine the optimal angle for solar exposure based on
latitude and climate.
Panel Type - Panel Size and Weight: Ensure compatibility with panel dimensions and weight.
- Framed vs. Frameless: Choose attachment methods based on panel type.
Environmental - Corrosion Resistance: Consider materials for corrosion prevention (e.g., stainless
Conditions steel, aluminum).
- Extreme Temperatures: Select materials that can withstand temperature
fluctuations.
- Roof Compatibility: Match the mounting system to the roofing material and
Roof Type installation method.
- Ballast or Penetration: Choose the appropriate attachment method (ballasted or
penetrating).
• Load calculations: Calculate the loads to find the weight of
the panels, the wind loads, and the snow loads.
• stability or safety.
• Foundation and support structure: Examine the stability of
the foundation and supporting structures, including the
roof, the ground, and any other structures that will be used
to hold the solar panels in place.
• Long-term durability: Take into account how long the
mounting system and its parts are expected to last.
Proper Sealing Techniques:

• Weatherproof sealing: To stop water penetration and

guard against leaks, proper sealing is necessary.
• Use top-notch gaskets and sealants
• Inspection and upkeep: Frequently look for wear,
cracking, or deterioration in sealed areas.
• Maintain seals regularly to make sure they're still
functional.
Anchoring Techniques:

• Load analysis:
• Make sure that the design and anchoring techniques of the
mounting system are suitable for the predicted loads,
including wind, snow, and earthquake.
• Professional installation: consult a structural engineer or
professional installation.
 PV Panel Loading
Example.
• the uniformly distributed load due to the PV panels is 0.13 kN/m2. The
panels are to be installed to the top 3.4m of the slope of each roof,
therefore the dead load on plan for each roof will be as follows:

Block A (40.9° pitch): PV Dead Load = 0.13 / cos 40.9 = 0.17 kN/m2
Block B (23.9° pitch): PV Dead Load = 0.13 / cos 23.9 = 0.14 kN/m2
Adjustable mounting
Strong & Stable Solar Roof Mounting Frame

• Roof attachments
• Module clamps
• Mounting rails
Roof attachments
Module clamps
• The module clamps attach the drilled-in roof attachments to the
mounting rails.
• There are a few different module clamp types for each angle and
corner of the solar panel.
 Mounting rails
• After drilling into the roof, the roof attachments are then connected
to mounting rails via module clamps that will then support the solar
panels.
• Although there are railless racking options available, rails are most
commonly used because they can be secured to most roof angles.
Mounting hole location
9. Safety
Personal protective equipment
• Wear appropriate PPE, including arc-rated clothing, gloves,
safety glasses, hearing protection, and leather footwear as
required for the voltage you are working on.
Electrocution Risks
• When dealing with any electrical system, there is always a risk of electrocution.

• Solar panel installations are no exception.

• It’s important to understand the potential hazards and take necessary precautions to
ensure your safety.

• One of the main risks is the high voltage DC (direct current) electricity generated by the
solar panels.
• This voltage can be as high as 600 volts, which is significantly higher than the standard
household voltage.

• It is crucial to follow proper safety procedures when working with solar panels to
avoid electric shock.

• a professional solar panel installer

• electrical components safely and ensure that the system is properly grounded.
Safety Mechanisms For Solar Panels
• Solar panels are designed with various safety mechanisms to prevent accidents and ensure the
smooth operation of the system.

• Overvoltage Protection: Solar panels are equipped with overvoltage protection devices that
prevent excessive voltage from damaging the system or causing electrical hazards.

• Ground Fault Protection: Ground fault protection devices detect any leakage of electrical
current to the ground and quickly shut down the system to prevent electric shocks or fires.

• Isolation Mechanisms: Solar panels have isolation mechanisms that separate the DC
(direct current) side from the AC (alternating current) side, reducing the risk of electrical shock
and fire hazards.

• Temperature Monitoring: Solar panels are equipped with

• temperature sensors that monitor the temperature of the panels.

Solar Panel Safety Check And Testing
Equipment
• Regular safety checks and testing of solar panels are necessary to identify any potential
issues or malfunctions that could pose safety risks.

• Insulation Resistance Tester: ----- any electrical leakage or insulation problems.

• Ground Fault Tester: A ground fault tester detects any ground faults in the solar panel system,
ensuring that the system is properly grounded and minimizing the risk of electrical shocks.

• Thermal Imaging Camera: A thermal imaging camera can detect hotspots or abnormal
temperature variations in the solar panels, indicating potential issues such as loose
connections or faulty components.

• Voltage Tester:
 Safe Solar Panel Installation
• Rooftop Solar Safety: Whether you are installing solar panels on a residential or commercial
building, it is essential to prioritize safety. safety regulations --a safe installation process.

• Electrical Safety in Solar Panels: Solar panels generate electricity, which means it is important to
handle them with caution. Following electrical safety protocols, such as using insulated tools and
wearing appropriate safety equipment, proper wiring and grounding .

• Licensed professionals

• Solar Panel Fire Risk: --potential fire risks associated with them. Regular maintenance and
inspections can help identify any issues and prevent fire hazards.

• Safe Handling of Solar Panels: Solar panels are delicate and can be easily damaged if
mishandled. ---how to handle and transport solar panels safely is essential to avoid any
accidents or damage.
What Is The Safety Mechanism For
Solar Panel Systems?

such as a solar panel safety switch, which can shut off the system in case of a fault or
during maintenance.

Other safety features include grounding systems,

circuit breakers, and

surge protection devices. SPD

safety hazards and how to avoid them

1. Shock or electrocution from energized conductors

• Electrical shocks are typically caused by a short circuit resulting from
corroded cables and connections, loose wiring, and improper
grounding.
• combiner box, PV source and output DC circuit conductors, and the
equipment grounding conductor.
• The grounding conductor bonds all metallic components together—and
eventually to ground—through the grounding electrode conductor and
grounding electrode.
2. Arc faults that spark fires
• As with any electrical system, fire is always a potential hazard.
• Perhaps one of the most common causes is electrical arc faults, which
are high power discharges of electricity between two or more conductors.
• The heat caused by this discharge can cause the wire insulation to
deteriorate and thus cause a spark or “arc” that causes a fire.
 3. Arc flash leading to explosions

• Large-scale PV arrays with medium and high levels of voltage are

susceptible to arc flash.
• This is especially true when a technician is checking for faults in energized
combiner boxes where PV source circuits are combined in parallel to
increase current, and when checking medium-to-high voltage switchgear.
• An arc flash releases hot gases and concentrated radiant energy up to—
as high as 35,000° F (~19,500° C).
• It occurs when a large amount of energy is available to an arc fault, in
both DC and AC conductors.
 IEC standard
MNBC 5B.10.5 Inverter
5A.3.3.9 Solar Photovoltaic Systems (SPV)
IEC 60364: 2017 Electrical installations of buildings – Part 7-712: Requirements for special installations
or locations – PV power supply systems
IEC 61727, 2nd Ed. (2004) Photovoltaic (PV) systems - Characteristics of the utility interface
IEC 62116, 2nd Ed. (2014-
Utility-interconnected photovoltaic inverters – Test procedure for prevention measures
02),
IEC 62109-1, 1st Ed. Safety of power converters for use in photovoltaic power systems –
(2010-04), Part 1: General requirements
Safety of power converters for use in photovoltaic power systems –
IEC 62109-2, 1st Ed.
Part 2: Particular requirements for inverters
(2011-06),

IEC 61427-1:2013 Secondary cells and batteries for renewable energy storage - General requirements and
methods of test - Part 1: Photovoltaic off grid application
 MAIN HAZARDS during installation and operation

• PV Modules produce electricity during daylight and cannot be turned off.

• live modules and a high risk of direct or indirect contact with electricity.
(proper insulating materials (e.g. gloves, insulated shoes, proper
harness , and etc.) to minimize the risk of electric shock. )
• short circuit current being not much higher than the operating current
into a fire hazard.
• affected by high wind may increase the risk of flying objects.
• Electric shock from PV Modules, cables, combiner boxes, and termination
points.
• DC insulation fault could be more dangerous as arc to fire.
safety during all the life cycle
• Enclosure integrity (Double isolation IP level)
• Switchgears operating in good condition.
• to evaluate if any overheating has occurred
• to examine switchgears for the presence of dust, moisture…
• Visual check of electrical connections
• Functional test of equipment and auxiliaries
• Insulation resistance test
10. Maintenance
 Maintenance Service Schedule
Frequency/
Item Service Description
Response Time

1 String-level open-circuit voltage, DC operating current tests, 1x per year

Visual inspection of Solar Facility’s general site conditions, PV

arrays, electrical equipment, mounting structure, fence, shading,
2 1x per year
trackers, vegetation, animal damage, erosion, corrosion, and
discolored panels.

Visual inspection and correction of Solar Facility for loose electrical

3 1x per year
connections and ground connections.
4 switches and disconnects test to ensure they are not jammed. 1x per year

Infrared scans on all combiner and re-combiner boxes; tighten

5 connections to manufacturer's torque specification; report broken 1x per year
terminal blocks.

check calibration expiration on sensors and meters, including meters

6 and perform other service such as cleaning and replacement of any 1x per year
desiccant.

Turn off and on logging and communications to ensure they are

7 1x per year
communicating and ensure battery backups are working.

Inverter preventive maintenance for inverters per manufacturer’s

8 See below
operating guidelines
9 Clean inverter cabinet air vents. 1x per year

Clean and change inverter air filters, if present, per manufacturer’s

10 1x per year
warranty requirements.

Clean/remove dust from inverter heat sinks per manufacturer’s warranty

11 1x per year
requirements.

Check torque marks and re-tightening appropriate wiring connections to

12 1x per year
design specification torque force per manufacturer’s guidelines.

Inspect roof penetrations to ensure sealant is applied properly and not

13 1x per year
degrading.

14 PV array module maintenance for modules See below

 Wash all panels with water with no chemicals in a method approved by 1x per year or per
15
the Owner. study

Perform infrared scan of % of modules for two types of circuitry

16 1x per year
connections: cells on the front and junction boxes on the back.

Remove any sprouting seeds or vegetation, bird nests, leaves or debris,

17 1x per year
etc.

Document details of preventive maintenance work, such as condition,

18 As performed
work performed, meter readings, thermal images, and testing results.

Include non-conformance reports to identify potential short-term and

19 1x per year
long-term power production issues.

20 Ongoing
Contractor will make available a 24x7 Technical Support.
Ribbon
Battery Maintenance ---Depth of discharge:

• DOD refers to the percentage of capacity that is used when a battery

is discharged.
• The relationship between DOD and battery life is non-linear, so
depending on the specifications for the battery and typical usage.
• Batteries will also have a minimum state of charge that the battery
can sustain without damage. SOC
SOC
Once a month, the cleaning of the batteries must be done.
Cycles
• A cycle is typically defined as each instance the battery is discharged
and then recharged.
• There are several more complex approaches to counting cycles.
• Cycle depth and frequency will vary based on usage of the battery.
• batteries will often cycle one time per day or less as they charge from
PV and discharge at peak periods.
• the number of cycles can be much greater and more variable, where
in the minimum number of cycles per year can vary from 250 to
10,000.
Battery Recycling
• lead-acid batteries in combined PV and storage settings benefit from
widespread usage of lead-acid batteries in other industries, such as
automobiles, and regulations on their disposition in many settings
because lead is toxic.
• Lithium-ion batteries are less regulated for end-of-life issues, and the
batteries themselves are more complicated to recycle than lead-acid
batteries.
• there may be more of a push to ensure products are recycled and
reused.
DC Array Inspection
• check of the DC array to detect string- and module-level faults
through periodic inspection and testing.
• The two main methodologies used for these inspections are manual
electrical testing and thermal-imaging inspections.
• Manual Electrical Testing Manual electrical testing such as open-
circuit voltage, operating current, is used as a method to detect faults
in the DC system.
Data Presentation
• Good reporting from monitoring data.
(1) the ratio of the amount of energy harvested to the potential
amount of energy available.
(2) plant equipment availability over time.
• peak operating point requires accurate performance measurements,
cost-effective repair of defects.
• temperature (ambient, module) • Real power and energy delivery
(kW, kWh) • Peak power delivery (kW) • reactive power (kVAR)
• Estimate of power that should have been produced. Inverter
efficiency, system efficiency • Measurement of soiling
 Cleaning frequency
• These include manufacturer requirements, the specific local soiling issues, and the
environment – for example, birdlife in the area
• Solar arrays in size, design, panel angle and roof type and access, among other
differences.
• Water use and equipment Care should be taken when cleaning solar systems not to
damage any panels or other components.
• Only equipment specifically designed for panel cleaning should be used to clean
panels,
• workers operating cleaning tools must be properly trained and equipped.
Water quality

•Water with the lowest possible level of mineral content is best for
solar panel cleaning.
•This is because mineral deposits can leave streaks and spots on
solar panels.
•Mineral content in water is measured in parts per million (PPM)
and measured using a total dissolved solids (TDS) meter.
Water temperature
•Take place in the early morning, late afternoon, or with a water
temperature within a specific range of the panel temperature.
•The solar system’s product warranties and installation guides should be
consulted for guidance on the water temperature to be used when
cleaning solar panels.
•Failure to do so may result in thermal shock where cold water is
sprayed on to hot glass, or vice versa.
•Particular care should be taken when dealing with very cold water and
very hot glass, which is the most common cleaning scenario where
thermal shock may present a risk.
 Maintenance of Solar System
• •Crimping of Cables on DC side.
• •Check for any shading due to any object or dust on the modules by visual
inspection.
• •Checking the module for hotspots with infrared camera.
• •Laying of Cables: Check visually and by Meggar for any faults before setting in
position for use. 10M ohn
• •Faults in Jointing Kits.
• •Checking of string voltage and string current regularly.
• •Checking input DC power and output AC power of Inverter.
• •Cleaning of Inverters & Fan filters.
• •Check for battery charger & battery bank condition.
• •Working out maintenance schedule and follow the same & keep all records.
 Testing
• Continuity test of protective earthing and/or equipotential bonding
conductors (if fitted)
• Polarity test
• String open circuit voltage test
• String short circuit current test
• Functional tests
• Insulation resistance of the DC and AC circuits
• Measurement of earth resistance
(Testing for PV systems larger than 10 kW shall be carried by an
independent third-party inspector/qualified engineer. )
 TECHNICAL DOCUMENTATION
• • Datasheets of key equipment and the overall PV system
• • IEC certifications of the PV modules and inverters
• • Warranty documents of key equipment by Original Equipment Manufacturer.
• • Design document of the module mounting structure.
• • Warranty document of the entire rooftop PV system as a whole by the installer.
• • Operation and maintenance manual of the PV system.
• • Test results and commissioning certificate.
• • Electrical Single Line Diagram
• • Equipment layout diagram
• • Wire and earthing layout diagram.
 Solar Operations & Maintenance services
• any dust, bird’s nature calls or gum resins can directly have an impact of about
15% on efficiency of the system.
• Every three months, you should examine the modules to see whether there has
been an occurrence of fungus on & around the array.
• Make sure that no shading of the array has occurred because of the growth of
trees in the surrounding area.
• You can use a garden hose to clean the solar panels.
• Never spray cold water when they are hot; it can cause a lot of damage.
• No using a metal brush to clean the surface of the solar panel, and never use
detergents.
• Confirm that the panels and supporting frames are absolutely secured.
• Ensure that the fittings and cables at the panels and the inverter.
Maintenance Of The Inverter

• The inverter must be placed in a neat, dry, and ventilated area which
is isolated from the battery bank.
• Some operational checks can be performed, such as inspecting the
inverters visually, scanning connections for resistive joints.
• always trying to check the inverter input DC voltage.
• ensuring that all the cooling vents are free of debris,
• checking that the LED lights are functioning appropriately,
• wipe out the dust using a dry cloth and also assure that there is
enough free space around the units for cooling intentions.
 Maintenance and Inspection of Mounting Systems
Strategy Description

Establish a routine inspection schedule based on manufacturer

Scheduled Inspections recommendations and local conditions.
Visually inspect all system components for wear, corrosion, or
Visual Inspections damage during inspections.
Use thermal imaging cameras to detect hotspots caused by
Thermal Imaging loose or faulty connections.

Ensure that fasteners are tightened to manufacturer torque

Tightening and Torque Checks specifications to prevent loosening.

Regularly clean panels and mounting structure to remove

Cleaning debris and maintain optimal performance.

Adjust maintenance frequency based on local environmental

Environmental Considerations factors like humidity and salt exposure.
Should not
 Battery life
• the battery should be of the deep-discharge type and be large enough to
store enough energy to operate the appliances at night and on cloudy
days.
• for the battery to last a long time, it should not be discharged too much or
too often.
• battery life depends on how much discharge takes place before a
recharge.
• Should no more than one-fifth of its full charge.
• The rule for battery size is to install a battery that has at least five times
needed to operate the appliances for one day.
 Summary of Battery size calculation

• Step 1. Calculate the watt-hours per day used by each appliance

• Step 2. Total the watt-hours per day used by all appliances.
• Step 3. Multiply the total appliance watt-hours per day by Number of Backup Days:
(Decide how many days you want your system to function without sunlight, which
influences the needed capacity.)
• Step 4. Divide the result of Step 3 by the battery voltage.

Batteries needed (Ah) = (Daily consumption (Ah) X Backup days X Annual correction
factor 1.15) / DOD (%).
• Battery Usage
• You do not want to use 100% of the batteries capacity in fear of ruining the battery.
• When calculating battery size remember to also calculate a safe usable
percentage of the batteries.
• ​(battery capacity)Ah ÷ (air conditioner consumption)A * 0.7 = estimated hours
Example
• Suppose you operate an air conditioner for one hour, which draw 1000
Watts (for simple calculations). Battery is 100Ah.
• ​Taking 1000 Watts from a 12-Volt battery requires the battery to deliver
approximately 84 Amps.
• 1000 Watts ÷ 12 Volts = 84 Amps
• (​(100)Ah ÷ (84)A) * 0.7 = 0.83 estimated hours
Example

• Battery has a capacity of 10kWh

• Air cond 800W, and lighting 700W.
• The combined system power draw is 800 + 700 = 1500 W.
• The 10kWh battery will last 10kWh / 1500W = 6.6 hours * 0.7 = 4.62 Hr
 Factors that affects the capacity of a battery
• Temperature:
• Age:
• Number of cycles: Each time a battery is charged and discharged, it loses a small amount of capacity.
The more charge cycles a battery goes through, the less capacity it will have.
• Depth of discharge: DOD
• Storage conditions: A battery that is stored in a cool, dry place will have a longer lifespan and retain
more capacity than one that is stored in a hot, humid environment.
• The rate of discharge: The faster a battery is discharged, the less capacity it will have. (A)
• Quality of the battery:
• Voltage: Overcharging or undercharging a battery can decrease the capacity over time.
• Operating environment: Exposure to dust, humidity, vibration, and other environmental factors can
shorten the life of a battery and reduce its capacity.
 Inverter KW--power
• Max Charging current
• Max Discharging current

• Charging current should be 1/10 of batteries Ah)

200Ah x (1/10) = 20A
• Charging Time required for Battery
Charging Time of battery = Battery Ah / Charging Current
= 300/20=15hr
5 Reasons Your Inverter is Not
Charging the Battery
• No Battery Power Supply
• The first thing that you should do is make sure there is
actually power going into the inverter. Without power, the
system will not charge.
• Look up the circuit breaker to ensure it is properly set. If
you are familiar with electrical components or installed the
inverter yourself, you should have an idea if the set up is
correct.
• A Dead Battery
• If your battery is dead or rapidly running out of power, it will no longer be
able to carry a charge. Even assuming that the battery might start charging,
the voltage will quickly drop, making it impossible to run any load.
• Low Battery Voltage
• A typical inverter charger requires the voltage to be above 11.5V, assuming
the inverter is 12V. If the voltage is lower than this, the system electronics will
not be able to initiate a charge.
• Some batteries can also be charged via AC power. If that option is available
you may use any power outlet to recharge the batteries so the voltage level
goes higher than 11.5V.
• Loose Wiring
• The inverter cables to the battery must be the right size and has to
be secure. A loose terminal wiring will result in a system failure
and the inverter will stop running.
• Blown Fuse
• Fuses can blow for a variety of reasons, the most common being a
short circuit when running a power load.
• Inverters need different types of fuses, and you can find the
relevant information on the operating manual.