lOMoARcPSD|53321039

ElectricalMachines

Computer Science EDUCATION (University of Ibadan)

Scan to open on Studocu

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

IGBAJO POLYTECHNIC

LECTURE NOTE ON ELECTRICAL

MACHINES II

EEC233

LECTURER: Mr. FAJUMOBI S.A.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC
ENGINEERING
FIRST SEMESTER, ND II

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

CHAPTR ONE
INTRODUCTION

It may be necessary to define what we mean by the term electrical machines. A machine is a device that does

useful work in a predictable way according to some physical laws. It acts as a transducer, or convertors,

accepting an input of energy in one physical form and transforming it, more or less effectively, into another.

An electromagnetic machine, in the essential conversion process, uses energy in an intermediate magnetic

form. As a motor, the machine takes in electrical energy and convert it into mechanical work, such as

driving a machine tool or a lift, or operating a loudspeaker. An electro-magnetic machine is usually

reversible.

Electrical energy is versatile and controllable. Its special lie in that can be transfer continuously and

economically from place to place (Transmission), made widely available as a services (distribution), used in

conveying intelligence (Telecommunication and data processing), and applied to indicate a supervise

production systems (control, instrumentation and computation). It is readily converted into sound, light, heat

and useful forms of energy. In particular it is easily converted to or from mechanical energy in the

electromagnetic machines.

ELECTRO‒MECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Principle of electrical machines

The operation of electromagnetic mechanical devices can be explained in terms of basic principles

concerned with: i. The development of magneto-mechanical forces and

ii. The induction of e.m.f (electromotive force) by the rate of change of the linkage.

Thus, electromagnetic energy conversion is based on three basic principles namely (i) induction (ii)

interaction and (iii) alignment

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

1. PRINCIPLE OF INDUCTION

It is known that when electrons are in motion, they produce a magnetic field. Conversely, when, a magnetic

field embracing a conductor moves relative to the conductor, it produce a flow of electrons in the conductor.

The phenomenon whereby an e.m.f and hence current (i.e flow of electrons) is induced in any conductor

which is cut across or is cut by a magnetic flux is known as electromagnetic induction

The induced emf E is given by

(a) E=N OR (b) e = BLU.............volts………eqn.1.1

Where N = number of turns of the coil

Ø = flux in webers linking the coil

T = time in seconds

This is the equation for the induced e.m.f when the magnetic flux moves relatively to the conductor.

In equation 1.1(b), B = flux density in wb/m2

L = effective length of conductor in metre , U = velocity of the conductor in m/s

And this is the equation for the induced e.m.f when the conductor moves relatively to the flux. The induction

principle is employed in devices such as induction motors, generators, transformers, controlling instrument

etc.

1.1.3a. Sketchmatic explanation of the induction principle

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

Fig:1.1.3a.Voltage & Current induced in the secondary circuit due to flux linkage with the primary winding.

Fig: 1.1.3b Conductor stationary, while the field moves (current will be induced on the galvanometer)

Fig: 1.1.3c
Fig. 1.1.3 (b) shows an iron- cored solenoid with a permanent magnetic place adjacent to it. If the

magnet position is changed from position CD to position AB, the flux linking with the

coils of the solenoid will change, leading to an induced emf in the coil which can be

detected by the sensitive galvanometer G. in this arrangement, the conductor (coil) is

stationary while the filed (magnet) moves as in alternators i.e a.c generators.

Fig 1.1.3 (b) shows a filed arrangement that is stationary while the conduct a-b is free to move about

the vertical axis. An e.m.f, detectable by galvanometer G, will be induced in the conductor as

it cuts through the flux. This principle is employed in the construction of

d.c. generator,.

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

F ig 1.1.3(a) when a coil (N1) is made to carry an alternative current (ii) it produces an alternative flux (Ø). If a second
coil (N2) is now placed in a region whereby the alternative flux produced by the first coil links with the second coil, an
e.m.f ( usually of the same frequency) will be induced in the second coil. This is the principle of the transformer and the
induction motors.

2.PRINCIPLE OF INTERACTION

An electric current flowing in a direction making an angle (preferably a right-angle) with a magnetic filed

produced by another current ( or a magnet) experience a force fe, the relative direction being shown in Fig

1.2.

Fig: 1.2 Principle of interaction.

The force, fe, arises from the interaction of the flux (created by the current l‟ flowing in the conductor with

the flux produced by a second current or magnet. Since lines of flux do not cross, the two fluxes will realign.

Resulting in a stronger fie ld one side. The conductor and weaker filed on t6he other side. The conductor

then tends to move from the region of stronger field to the region of weaker filed. Employed in electric

motors.

3.PRINCIPLE OF ALIGNMENT

A pieces of ferromagnetic materials in a magnetic field experience of force urging it towards a region where

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

the field is stronger, or tending to align it so as to shorten the magnetic flux path as shown in fig: 1.3

Fig: 1.3a Moving coil meter Fig: 1.3b The force fe on shaped high

permeability pieces in a field

Fig: 1.3c Polar attraction & repulsion on separately magnetized bodies

INDUCED VOLTAGE DEVICES

Recalling that a conductor moving or cutting magnetic lines of flux or that the flux moves relative to the

conductor will produce an induced voltage, the following devices employ the induced voltage arrangement.

(i) The transformer- an alternating current flowing in the primary coil (winding) set up an alternating

flux that links with the secondary coil inducing a voltage in the latter.

(ii) The generator-usually constructed like industrial rotating machine but with the rotor mechanical energy

(via the prime –mover) will have emf induced in the stator coils. ( the stator is slotted to house conductors)

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

(ii) The induction motor- the stator usually carried one or three –phase windings while the rotor may have a

similar arrangement of coil as the stator or just carry an aluminum bars. Electrical energy supplied to the

stator windings produced a rotating magnetic field will cuts the rotor conductors and hence induced

voltages in them. A complete rotor circuit will have current flowing in the rotor conductors (caused by the

induced voltage) and by interaction forces produced motion of the rotor.

INTERACTION DEVICES

(i) Electromagnetic pump: current passed through a conducting liquid in an enclosed channel forces the

liquid to move by interaction with a magnetic cross field; liquid sodium-potassium or lithium can be

pumped in thy way for the extraction of heat from a nuclear reactor.

(ii) Loudspeaker: alternating current in the coil flow in the radial magnet filed of the port magnet,. And the

consequent movement of the attached diaphragm sets up sound waves. This is the same essential

arrangement as a “generator‟ of mechanical vibrations

(iii) Moving –coil indicator-current (normally direct) in the coil of the indirect develops a force in the radial

permanent- magnet filed to move pointed against a control spring.

(iv) Industrial rotating machines: Current caused to flow in conductors the surface of a rotor, mounted within

a magnetic stator develop interaction forces tending to turn the rotor.

ALIGNMENT DEVICES

(i) The lifting magnet: Attract ferromagnetic loads such as beams, plates, and scrap- iron.

(ii) The relay: the coil current causes the armature to be attracted towards the cover against a spring load:

Millions of such relays do useful work in automatic telephone exchanges, traffic light installation and simple

control systems,.

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

(iii) The telephone receivers: has a ferromagnetic diaphragm attracted by a permanent magnet, the field is

caused to fluctuated by the speech currents in the coil, so varying the deflection of the claptrap and

producing sound waves in the air.

(iv) The moving- iron indicator, uses the force between the fixed and moving irons to deflect a pointer

against a spring.

(v) The Reluctance motor- the forces urge a displaced rotor in alignment with the magnetized stator.

(v) The actuator-the current-carrying coil “suck” a displaced ferromagnetic plunger into a position of

symmetry: this is a useful and forceful device.

Work Examples

Example 1

A conductor carries a current of 800 A at right- angle to magnetic field having a density of 0.5wb/m2

calculated the force on a metre length of the conductor.

Solution

The force F is given by F = BLI

= 0.5 X 1 X 800

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

= 400N

Example 2

A four –pole generator has a magnetic flux of 12 mnb /pole calculated the average value of the emf

generated in one of the armature conductors while it is moving through the magnetic flux of one pole, if

armature is driven at 900 r.p.m

Solution

When a conductor moves through the magnetic field of one pole, it cuts a magnetic flux of 12 x 10-3 wb.

Time taken for a conductor to move through one revolution

= = second
Since the machine has 4 poles, time taken for a conductor to move through the field of one pole = X =

The rate of change of flux = = = 0.012

:. Average emf generated in one conductor = The rate of change of of flux /Time taken for a conductor to move through
the field of one pole

=0.012 / 0.01667 = 0.72v

Example 4

A magnetic flux of 400 μwb passing through a coil of 1200 turns is reversed in 0.1s calculate the average

emf induced in the coil.

Solution

The magnetic flux has to decrease form 400 μwb to zero and then increase to 400wwb in the reverse

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

direction, hence the increase of flux is 400 (-400-400) μwb = -800 x 10-6 wb.

:. Average emf induced in coil

= =N

= 1200 X = 9.6V

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

CHAPTER TWO
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION
As all of you know that energy exists in many forms like chemical energy, potential energy, thermal energy, and
many more. When we hear the word EMEC (Electromechanical energy conversion) device, the first thing strike in
our mind is that these are conversion device from electrical to mechanical.

So what’s exactly is an EMEC device?

Electromechanical Energy Conversion Device

An electromechanical energy conversion device is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy and
mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Conversion of electromechanical energy takes place via two mediums. One is the magnetic field and another is the
electrical fields. Most converters use the magnetic field as coupling medium electrical and mechanical systems. The
large energy storing capacity of the magnetic field than the electrical fields is the reason to use the magnetic field as
coupling medium between electrical and mechanical systems.

Electromechanical energy conversion is a reversible process. This means that the energy can be converted back and forth
from electrical to mechanical form. But during this reversible process on every conversion, some energy is lost in the
system. Electromechanical energy converters are either gross-motion devices such as electric motors and generators or
incremental motion devices like microphones, loudspeakers, electromagnetic relays, etc.

Electromechanical energy conversion is used extensively in synchronous, induction, and DC machines. In these
machines when conversion takes place from electrical form to mechanical form, then the device is called a motor. And
when energy conversion takes place from mechanical to electrical form, then the device is called a generator. In these
machines, the energy conversion results from the following electromagnetic phenomena:

1. When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force.
2. When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in the conductor.

Conservation of energy
According to the principle of conservation of energy, energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. It may transfer
from one form to another form.

Thus, with an electromechanical conversion device, the energy balance equation can be written as

[Electrical energy input] = [Energy to electrical losses]+[Energy to field storage in the electrical system]+[Mechanical
energy output]

For generating action, the balance equation can be written as:

[Total mechanical energy input] = [Electrical energy output]+[Total energy stored]+[Total energy dissipated]

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

Assignment

Using the knowledge of general energy balance equation applicable to all situations, derive the following:

I. Induced voltage and electrical energy input in singly excited systems.

II. The energy in the magnetic field and the mechanical force of a singly excited system and finally

III. Energy balanced equation for the system.

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

CHAPTER THREE
THE TRANSFORMER

INTRODUCTION

The transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one

electrical circuit to another electrical circuit. The two circuits may be
operating at different voltage levels but always work at the same frequency.
Basically transformer is an electro-magnetic energy conversion device. It is
commonly used in electrical power system and distribution systems. It can
change the magnitude of alternating voltage or current from one value into
another. This useful property of transformer is mainly responsible for the
wide spread use of alternating currents rather than direct currents i.e., electric
power is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of alternating
current. Transformers have no moving parts, rugged and durable in
construction, thus requiring very little attention. They also have a very high
efficiency as high as
99%.

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a static device of equipment used either for raising or
lowering the
voltage of an a.c. supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current.
It essentially
consists of two windings, the primary and secondary, wound on a common
laminated magnetic
core as shown in Fig.3.2. The winding connected to the a.c. source is called
primary winding (or primary) and the one connected to load is called
secondary winding (or secondary). The alternating voltage V1 whose
magnitude is to be changed is applied to the primary.
Depending upon the number of turns of the primary (N 1) and secondary (N2),
an alternating e.m.f. E2 is induced in the secondary. This induced e.m.f. E 2

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

in the secondary causes a secondary current I2. Consequently, terminal voltage

V2 will appear across the load.

If V2 > V1, it is called a step up-transformer.

If V2 < V1, it is called a step-down transformer.

Fig. 3.2 Schematic diagram of single phase transformer

TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
Transformers can be classified based on the following
 Construction of the transformer which include core and shell type
 Function of the transformer, such as voltage transformer, current
transformer, power transformer amongst others.
 Operation of the transformer that is step up and step down.

 Construction of the transformer which include core and shell type

In core type transformers, the windings are placed in the form of concentric
cylindrical coils placed around the vertical limbs of the core. The low-voltage
(LV) as well as the high-voltage (HV) winding are made in two halves, and
placed on the two limbs of core. The LV winding is placed next to the core for
economy in insulation cost. Figure 3.2.1(a) shows the cross-
section of the arrangement. In the shell type transformer, the primary and
secondary windings are wound over the central limb of a three-limb core as
shown in Figure 3.2.1(b). The HV and LV windings are split into a number of

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

sections, and the sections are interleaved or sandwiched i.e. the sections of the
HV and LV windings are placed alternately.

Fig: 3.2.1 Core type & shell type transformer

Core
The core is built-up of thin steel laminations insulated from each other. This
helps in reducing the eddy current losses in the core, and also helps in
construction of the transformer. The steel used for core is of high silicon
content, sometimes heat treated to produce a high permeability
and low hysteresis loss. The material commonly used for core is CRGO (Cold
Rolled Grain Oriented) steel. Conductor material used for windings is mostly
copper. However, for small distribution transformer aluminum is also
sometimes used. The conductors, core and whole windings are insulated using
various insulating materials depending upon the voltage.

Insulating Oil
In oil-immersed transformer, the iron core together with windings is immersed
in insulating oil.The insulating oil provides better insulation, protects insulation
from moisture and transfers the heat produced in core and windings to the
atmosphere. The transformer oil should possess the following qualities:
(a) High dielectric strength,
(b) Low viscosity and high purity

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

(c) High flash point, and

(d) Free from sludge.
Transformer oil is generally a mineral oil obtained by fractional distillation of crude oil.

Tank and Conservator

The transformer tank contains core wound with windings and the insulating
oil. In large transformers small expansion tank is also connected with main tank
is known as conservator. Conservator provides space when insulating oil
expands due to heating. The transformer tank is provided with tubes on the
outside, to permits circulation of oil, which aides in cooling. Some
additional devices like breather and Buchholz relay are connected with main
tank. Buchholz relay is placed between main tank and conservator. It protect
the transformer under extreme heating of transformer winding. Breather protects
the insulating oil from moisture when the cool transformer sucks air inside. The
silica gel filled breather absorbs moisture when air enters the tank. Some other
necessary parts are connected with main tank like, Bushings, Cable Boxes,
Temperature gauge, Oil gauge, Tapings, etc.
 TRANSFOMER BASED ON FUNCTION
(a) Current transformer: It is used for measuring current in excess of
100A
(b) Isolating transformer: transformers not only enable current or
voltage to be transformed to some different magnitude but provide a
means of isolating electrically one part of a circuit from another when
there is no electrical connection between primary and secondary
winding.
(c) Three phase transformers: It consists of three pairs of single phase
windings mounted on one core. They are mainly used for power
transmission.
(d) Voltage transformers: for measuring voltages in excess of about
500V.

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

(e) Auto−transformer: An auto transformer has part of its winding

common to the primary and secondary circuits. It has similar theory
and operation principle of a two winding transformer though it has
one winding, therefore it uses less copper hence cheaper. It is used
when transformation ratio differs slightly from unity.

Principle of Operation of Transformer

When an alternating voltage V 1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux

ϕ is set up in the core. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces
e.m.f.s E1 and E2 in them according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic
induction. The e.m.f. E 1 is termed as primary e.m.f. and e.m.f. E2 is termed as
secondary e.m.f.
Clearly,E1=−N1 and E2 =−N
∴ =

Note that magnitudes of E2 and E1 depend upon the number of turns on the
secondary and primary respectively.
If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1 (or V2 > V1) and we get a step-up transformer.
If N2 < N1, then E2 < E1(or V2< V1) and we get a step-down transformer.If load is
connected across the secondary winding, the secondary e.m.f. E 2 will cause a
current I2 to flow through the load. Thus, a transformer enables us to transfer
a.c. power from one circuit to another with a change in voltage level.

The following points may be noted carefully

(a) The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic induction.
(b) There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary.
(c) The a.c. power is transferred from primary to secondary through magnetic flux.
(d) There is no change in frequency i.e., output power has the same frequency as the input power.
(e) The losses that occur in a transformer are:
(a) core losses—eddy current and hysteresis losses
(b) copper losses—in the resistance of the windings
In practice, these losses are very small so that output power is nearly
equal to the input primary power. In other words, a transformer has
very high efficiency.

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

Consider that an alternating voltage V1 of frequency f is applied to the
primary as shown in Fig.3.4. The sinusoidal flux ϕ produced by the
primary can be represented as: ϕ=ϕm sinωt When the primary winding
is excited by an alternating voltage V1, it is circulating alternating
current, producing an alternating flux ϕ.

ϕ – Flux, ϕm - maximum value of flux

N1 - Number of primary turns
N2 - Number of secondary turns
f - Frequency of the supply voltage
E1 - R.M.S. value of the primary induced e.m.f
E2 - R.M.S. value of the secondary induced e.m.f
The instantaneous e.m.f. e1 induced in the primary is:
From Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction:
Average e.m.f per turns = , where dØ = change in flux and dt =time required for change in flux.
The flux increases from zero value to maximum value Øm in of the time period, that is in
seconds. The change of flux that takes place in seconds = Øm – 0 = Øm Weber.
Average rate of change of flux = = = 4fØm Wb/s or volt.

Since flux Ø varies sinusoidally, the r.m.s. value of the induced e.m.f is obtained by multiplying
form factor of a sine wave which is equal to = 1.11

R.M.S value of e.m.f induced in one turns = Average value x form factor

E = 4Ømf x 1.11 volts

E = 4.44Ømf volts

R.M.S value of e.m.f induced in primary winding, E1 = 4.44Ømf N1volts.

Similarly, R.M.S value of e.m.f induced in secondary winding, E2 = 4.44Ømf N2 volts.

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

Therefore, the expression of E1 and E2 are called e.m.f equation of a transformer.

i.e V1 = E1 = 4.44ØmfN1 volts

V2 = E2 = 4.44Ømf N2 volts.

Voltage transformation ratio (k) is the ratio of e.m.f induced in the secondary winding to the
e.m.f induced in the primary winding.

Let us recall that E1 = 4.44Ømf N1…………Eqn.1

E2 = 4.44Ømf N2…………Eqn.2

Dividing Eqn.2 by Eqn.1 = = = k

This ratio of secondary induced e.m.f to primary induced e.m.f is

known as voltage transformation ratio.
E2 = kE1 where k =

Note:1. If N2>N1 i.e. K>1 we get E2>E1, then the transformer is called step up transformer.

2. If N2< N1 i.e. K<1 we get E2< E2, then the transformer is called step down transformer
3. If N2= N1 i.e. K=1 we get E2= E2, then the transformer is called isolation transformer or
1:1 Transformer
Current Ratio
Current ratio is the ratio of current flow through the primary winding (I 1) to
the current flowing through the secondary winding (I2). In an ideal transformer -
Apparent input power = Apparent output power i.e V1I1 = V2I2

Volt-Ampere Rating
i) The transformer rating is specified as the products of voltage and current (VA rating).
ii) On both sides, primary and secondary VA rating remains the same. This
rating is generally expressed in KVA (Kilo Volts Amperes rating)
=

V1I1 = V2I2

kVA Rating of a transformer = = (1000 is to convert kVA to VA)

V1 and V2 are the Voltages of primary and secondary, by using kVA rating we can calculate I1 and
I2 full load current and it is safe maximum current.

I1 full load current =

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

I2 full load current =

Examples

(1) The maximum flux density in the core of a transformer 250/3000 volt, 50Hz single phase
transformer is 1.2wb/m2. If the e.m.f per turns is 8 volt. Determine: i) Primary and
secondary turns
ii) Area of the core

Solution

i) E = 4.44ØmfN

E1=250v, E2=3000v, Øm=1.2wb/m2, e.m.f= 8 volts

E1= N1 x e.m.f.

N1= = = 31.25 turns

N2 = = 375 turns

ii) E2 = 4.44ØmfN2, but Øm = BmA

∴ E2 = 4.44BmfAN2

3000 = 4.44 x 1.2 x 50 x A x 375

A = = 0.03m2

Example 2

A single phase transformer has 400 primary and 1000 secondary turns. The net cross
sectional area is 60cm2, if the primary winding is connected to a 50Hz supply at 520v,
calculate:

i. the peak value of flux density in the core

ii. the voltage induced in the secondary winding.

Solution

N1 = 400, N2 = 1000, A = 60cm2 = 60 x 10−4m2, f = 50Hz, E1 = 520v, E2=?, Bm =?

i. E1 = 4.44fN1BmA
520 = 4.44 x 50 x 400 x Bm x 60 x 10−4
Bm = = 0.98 wb/m2

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

ii. E2 = 4.44fN2BmA
= 4.44 x 50 x 1000 x 0.98 x 60 x 10−4
= 1305.4v

Example 3

A 40kVA, single phase transformer has 400 turns on the primary and 100 turns on the
secondary. The primary is connected to 2000v, 50Hz supply. Determine the: (i) secondary
voltage on open circuit

(ii) current flowing through the two windings on full−load

(iii) maximum value of flux

Solution

Transformer Rating = 40kVA, Primary turns = 400, Secondary turns = 100, Primary induced
voltage E1 = V1 = 2000v

(i) Secondary voltage on open circuit V2 : =

E2 = E1 x
E2 = V2 = 2000 x = v
Hence, V2 = v

(ii) Primary Current I1 =? Secondary Current I2 =?

Primary full−load current I1 = = = 20A

Secondary full−load current I2 = = = 80A

(iii) maximum value of flux Øm, Using e.m.f Equation

E1 = 4.44fØmN1

Øm = 0.022wb.

Exercise

1. A 25kVA transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary winding.
The primary is connected to 3000v, 50Hz supply. Find: i) the full load primary and secondary
currents

ii) the secondary e.m.f

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

iii) maximum flux in the core. Neglect leakage drops and no load primary current.

2. A 3000/200v, 50Hz, single transformer is built on a core having an effective cross sectional
area of 150cm2 and has 80 turns in the lower voltage winding. Calculate:

i) value of the maximum flux density in the core

ii) number of turns in the high voltage winding

iii) transformation ratio

3. A 40kVA, 3300/240v, 50Hz single phase transformer has 660 turns on the primary.
Determine: i) number of turns in secondary winding

ii) maximum value of flux in the core iii) Approximate value of primary and secondary full load
currents.

4. A single phase 50Hz transformer has 20 primary turn and 273 secondary turns. The net cross
sectional area of the core is 400cm2. If the primary winding is connected to 230v supply. Find i)
peak value of flux density in the core. ii) voltage induced in the secondary winding.

5. A single−phase transformer with 200kVA, 450/11000, rating operating at 50Hz frequency has
2010 turns on the secondary winding. Determine: i) the approximate values of the primary and
secondary currents

ii) the approximate number of primary winding and

iii) The maximum value of the flux.

6. The no−load ratio required in a single−phase Hz transformer is 6600/600v. If the maximum

value of flux in the core is to be about 0.08wb. Find the number of turns in each winding.

7. a single−phase transformer is connected to a 230v, Hz supply. The net cross−sectional area of

the core is 60cm2. The number of turns in the primary is and in the secondary 100. Determine:

(i) transformation ratio (ii) e.m.f induced in secondary winding (iii) maximum value of flux
density in the core.

8. The voltage per turn of a single−phase transformer is 1.1v. When the primary winding is
connected to 220v,Hz a.c supply, the secondary voltage is found to be v. Find:

(i) primary and secondary turns

(ii) core area if the maximum flux density is 1.1T

Transformer on No-load

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

a) Ideal transformer
b) Practical transformer

a) Ideal Transformer: An ideal transformer is one that has

(i) No winding resistance
(ii) No leakage flux i.e., the same flux links both the winding

(iii) No iron losses (i.e., eddy current and hysteresis losses) in the core
Although ideal transformer cannot be physically realized, yet its study
provides a very powerful tool in the analysis of a practical transformer.
In fact, practical transformers have properties that approach very close
to an ideal transformer.

Fig.3.5
Consider an ideal transformer on no load i.e., secondary is open-circuited as shown in
Fig.3.5
(i). under such conditions, the primary is simply a coil of pure inductance.
When an alternating
voltage V1 is applied to the primary, it draws a small magnetizing current I m
which lags behind
the applied voltage by 90°. This alternating current I m produces an alternating
flux ϕ which is
proportional to and in phase with it. The alternating flux ϕ links both the
windings and induces
e.m.f. E1 in the primary and e.m.f. E2 in the secondary. The primary e.m.f. E1
is, at every

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

instant, equal to and in opposition to V 1 (Lenz’s law). Both e.m.f.s E 1 and E2 lag
behind flux ϕ
by 90°.However, their magnitudes depend upon the number of primary and
secondary turns.
Fig. 3.5 (ii) shows the phasor diagram of an ideal transformer on no load.
Since flux ϕ is
common to both the windings, it has been taken as the reference phasor. The
primary e.m.f. E1
and secondary e.m.f. E2 lag behind the flux ϕ by 90°. Note that E 1 and E2 are in
phase. But E1
is equal to V1 and 180° out of phase with it.

= =k

Phasor Diagram

i) Φ (flux) is reference

ii) Im produce ϕ and it is in phase with ϕ, V1 Leads Im by 90˚

E1 and E2 are in phase and both opposing supply voltage V 1, winding is

purely inductive So current has to lag voltage by 90˚.

iii) The power input to the transformer, P = V1I1 cos (90˚) ……….. (cos90˚ = 0)
P= 0 (ideal transformer)

b)i) Practical Transformer on no load

A practical transformer differs from the ideal transformer in many respects. The practical
transformer has:

(i) iron losses (ii) winding resistances and (iii) Magnetic leakage
(i) Iron losses. Since the iron core is subjected to alternating flux, there occurs
eddy current and hysteresis loss in it. These two losses together are known as
iron losses or core losses. The iron losses depend upon the supply frequency,

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

maximum flux density in the core, volume of the core etc. It may be noted that
magnitude of iron losses is quite small in a practical transformer.
(ii) Winding resistances. Since the windings consist of copper
conductors, it immediately
follows that both primary and secondary will have winding resistance. The
primary resistance
R1 and secondary resistance R 2 act in series with the respective windings.
When current flows through the windings, there will be power loss as well as a
loss in voltage due to IR drop. This will affect the power factor and E 1 will be
less than V1 while V2 will be
less than E2.

Consider a practical transformer on no load i.e., secondary on open-circuit as Shown in Fig 3.6.

Fig: 3.6 Phasor diagram of transformer at noload

Here the primary will draw a small current I0 to supply –

(i) The iron losses and

(ii) A very small amount of copper loss in the primary.
Hence the primary no load current I0 is not 90° behind the applied voltage V1
but lags it by
an angle ϕ0 < 90° as shown in the phasor diagram. No load input power, P 0 =
V1 I0 cos ϕ0

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

As seen from the phasor diagram in Fig.3.6 (ii), the no-load primary current I0 has two
components: (i) The component Ic in phase with the applied voltage V 1. This is known as active or
working or iron loss component and supplies the iron loss and a very small primary copper loss.
Ic = I0 cos ϕ0
(ii)The component Im lagging behind V1 by 90° and is known as magnetizing
component. It is this component which produces the mutual flux ϕ in the core.
Im = I0 sin ϕ0
Clearly, Io is phasor sum of Im and Ic,
I0 =

No load power factor, p.f = CosØ0 =

The no load primary copper loss (i.e I02R1) is very small and may be neglected. Therefore, the no
load primary input power is practically equal to the iron loss in the transformer i.e., No load
input power, P0 = V1Iocosϕo = Pi = Iron loss.

b) ii)Practical Transformer on Load

Fig. 3.6

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

At no load, there is no current in the secondary so that V 2 = E2. On the primary

side, the drops in R1 and X1, due to I0 are also very small because of the
smallness of I 0. Hence, we can say that at no load, V1 = E1.

i) When transformer is loaded, the secondary current I2 is flows through the secondary
winding.
ii) Already Im magnetizing current flow in the primary winding fig. 3.6(i).
iii) The magnitude and phase of I2 with respect to V2 is determined by
the characteristics of the load. a) I2 in phase with V2 (resistive load)

b) I2 lags with V2 (Inductive load)

c) I2 leads with V2 (capacitive load)

iv) Flow of secondary current I2 produce new Flux ϕ2 fig.3.6 (ii)

v) Φ is main flux which is produced by the primary to maintain the
transformer as constant magnetising component.
vi) Φ2 opposes the main flux ϕ, the total flux in the core reduced. It is
called demagnetising Ampere- turns due to this E1 reduced.
vii) To maintain the ϕ constant primary winding draws more current (I 2’) from
the supply (load component of primary) and produce ϕ2’ flux which is oppose ϕ2
(but in same direction as ϕ), to maintain flux constant flux in the core fig.3.6
(iii).
viii) The load component current I2’ always neutralizes the changes in the load.
ix) Whatever the load conditions, the net flux passing through the core is
approximately the same as at no-load. An important deduction is that due to the
constancy of core flux at all loads, the core loss is also practically the same under
all load conditions fig.3.6 (iv).

Phasor Diagram

i) Take (ϕ) flux as reference for all load

ii) The load component I2’, which is in anti-phase with I2 and phase of I2 is decided by the
load.
iii) Primary current I1 is vector sum of Io and I2’

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

a) If load is Inductive, I2 lags E2 by ϕ2, shown in phasor diagram fig 3.7 (a).

b) If load is resistive, I2 in phase with E2 shown in phasor diagram fig. 3.7 (b).

c) If load is capacitive load, I2 leads E2 by ϕ2 shown in phasor diagram fig. 3.7 (c).
For easy understanding at this stage here we assumed E2 is equal to V2 neglecting various drops.

Fig.3.7

Examples

1. A 3300/300v single−phase transformer gives 0.6A and 60W as ammeter and wattmeter
readings when supply is given to the low voltage winding and high voltage winding is kept open.
Find:

(i) power factor of no‒load current (ii) magnetizing component and (iii) iron loss component

Solution

No‒load losses, Po = 60W, No‒load current I0 = 0.6A

(i) P0 = VI0CosØ0

60 = 300 x 0.6 x CosØ0

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

CosØ0 = = 0.33 ( lagging)

Hence, power factor of no‒load current = 0.33

(ii) magnetizing component, Im = IoSinØo = 0.6 = 0.6

Im = 0.566A

(iii) Iron loss component, Iw = Io CosØ0 = 0.6 x 0.33 = 0.198A

OR Iw = = = 0.198A

2. Find : (i) active and reactive components of no−load current and (ii) no−load current of a
440/220v single−phase transformer, if the power input on no−load to the high voltage winding is
80W and power factor of no−load current is 0.3 lagging.

Solution

Primary, E1 = 400v, Secondary E2 = 220v, power factor, CosØo =0.3(lagging), No−load losses Po
= 80W

(i) Active component (or wattful component) Iw = Io CosØo = = = 0.182A

CosØo = 0.3 , Øo = Cos−1(0.3) = 72.54o

TanØo = 3.18

∴ Reactive component (or magnetizing component) Im = IwtanØo

Im = 0.182 x 3.18 = 0.578A

(ii) Iw = IoCosØo,

0.182 = Io x 0.3

Io = = 0.606A OR Io = = = 0.606A

Assignment

1. A 3300/220v, 30kVA, single‒phase transformer takes a no−load current of 1.5A when the
low voltage winding is kept open. The iron loss component is equal to 0.4A. Find: (i)
no−load input power (ii) magnetizing component and power factor of no‒load current.
2. The no−load current of a transformer is 15A at a power factor of 0.25, when supplied at
460V, 50Hz and primary turns of 550. Calculate: (i) no−load current components (ii)
maximum value in the core.

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

3. A transformer draws no−load current of 4.0A at 0.25 power factor when supplied at
250V, 50Hz. The turns on the primary winding are 200. Calculate: (i) r.m.s value of the
flux in the core. (ii) core loss and magnetizing current.
4. The following data apply to a single phase transformer: Output = 202kVA, primary turns
= 220, secondary turns = 62, secondary voltage = 450. Calculate: (i) primary voltage
applied. (ii)normal primary and secondary currents (iii) secondary current when a load of
20kW is connected at 0.76 power factor.

TRANSFORMER ON LOAD

When the transformer is loaded i.e load connected to the secondary side of the transformer,
secondary current I2 is drawn. The magnitude and phase of the secondary current I2 with respect
to V2 is determined by the property of the load. I2 is in phase with V2 if the load is non−
inductive, it lags and leads if capacitive. However, whatever the load conditions, the net flux
passing through the core is approximately the same as at no load. That is, the core loss is
practically the same under all load conditions. Hence, when transformer is on load, the primary
winding has two currents, they are Io and additional primary current I’1.

TRANSFORMER TESTS

The performance of a transformer can be determined by calculating the following parameters:

(i) Resistance at both sides of the transformer or it equivalent resistance

(ii) Reactance at both sides or it equivalent reactance
(iii) The core−loss conductance (resistance)
(iv) Magnetizing susceptance (reactance)
These can be determined by two tests. They are:
(i) Open Circuit or No−load Test
(ii) Short Circuit Test

These tests are very economical and convenient as they do not require actual loading of the
transformer before giving the value of the parameter. The two tests enable the efficiency and the
voltage regulation to be calculated without actually loading the transformer and with accuracy
far higher than is possible by direct measurement of input and output powers and voltage. Also
the power required to carry this test is very small compared to the full load output.

 OPEN CIRCUIT OR NO−LOAD TEST

This test is to determine the no−load loss or core loss and the on−load current.
These are used in finding resistance and reactance. In this test, the rated voltage is
applied to the primary (usually low-voltage winding) while the secondary is left

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

open circuited. The applied primary voltage V1 is measured by the voltmeter, the
no load current I0 by ammeter and no-load input power P0 by wattmeter as shown
in Fig.3.8.a. As the normal rated voltage is applied to the primary, therefore,
normal iron losses will occur in the transformer core. Hence wattmeter will record
the iron losses and small copper loss in the primary. Since no-load current I0 is very
small (usually 2-10 % of rated current). Cu losses in the primary under no-load
condition are negligible as compared with iron losses. Hence, wattmeter reading
practically gives the iron losses in the transformer. It is reminded that iron losses
are the same at all loads.

Fig. 3.8a

Iron losses, P1 = Wattmeter reading =Po

No−load current = Ammeter reading = Io

Applied voltage = voltmeter reading = V 1

Input power, Po = V1IoCosØo

No−load p.f., CosØo = = no−load power factor

Im = IoSinØo = magnetizing component

Iw = IoCosØo = Active component

Ro = Ω, Xo = Ω

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

Under no load conditions the PF is very low (near to 0) in lagging region. By

using the above data we can draw the equivalent parameter shown in Figure
3.8.b.

Fig.3.8b.

Thus open-circuit test enables us to determine iron losses and

parameters R0 and X0 of the transformer.
 SHORT CIRCUIT OR IMPEDANCE TEST
In this test, the secondary side of the transformer is short circuited through a
suitable ammeter as shown in Fig.3.9 and a low voltage is applied to the
primary. This voltage shall be adjusted to circulate full load current on the
primary and secondary circuit. The circuit is shown below. In this case, the I 2R
loss in the winding is the same as that on the other hand. The core loss is
negligibly small since the applied voltage, flux and core loss is negligibly small.
Hence, the power registered on the wattmeter is taken as the I 2R loss on the
winding. Therefore short circuit power factor, p.f, CosØsc = Psc/V1I1

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

Fig. 3.9

TRANSFORMER LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY\

EFFICIENCY: The efficiency of a transformer at a particular load and power factor is the ratio
of output power to input power.

i.e. Efficiency = x 100

Taking into consideration losses in the system,

Recall that Input power = Output power + losses

Output power = input power – losses

Efficiency = x 100

= − x 100

= 1 − x 100

TRANSFORMER LOSSES

The core loss from no−load to full load is constant since load current is not constant during
normal operation. The winding I2R loss varies under normal condition. However, the core flux
remain approximately constant and the losses will vary with the core loss approximately constant
independent of the load. Total winding loss = I12R1 + I22R2. There are two sources of losses in
transformer on load. These are copper losses and iron losses.

 COPPER LOSSES: are variable and result in a heating of the conductors, due to the fact
that they possess resistance. i.e. the windings = I22R2
I12R1+ I22R2 = I12R01 = I22R02
 IRON LOSSES: are constant for a given value of frequency and flux density. It is of
two types, namely hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.
i. Hysteresis loss is due to the heating of the core as a result of the internal
molecular structure reversals which occur as the magnetic flux alternate.
ii. Eddy current is the heating of the core due to the e.m.f being induced in both the
transformer winding and the core.

WORKED EXAMPLE

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

A 400kVA transformer has a primary winding resistance of 0.5Ω and a secondary winding
resistance of 0.001Ω. The iron loss is 2.5kW and the primary and secondary voltages are 5kV
and 3.20kV respectively. If the power factor of the load is 0.85. determine efficiency of the
transformer : (a) on full load (b) half load

Solution

(a) Rating = 400kVA = V1I1 = V2I\

Hence, primary current I1 = = = 80A
Secondary Current I2 = = = 125A
Total copper loss = I12R1 + I22R2
= (80)2(0.5) + (125)2(0.001)
= 3200 + 15.625 = 3215.6 Watts
On full load, total loss = copper loss + Iron loss
= 3215.6 + 2500
= 5715.6W = 5.7156kW
Total output power, on full load = V2I2CosØ2
= (400 X 103)(0.85)
=340kW
Input power = output power + losses
= 340kW + 5.7156kW
= 345.7156kW
Eff. = 1 − x 100
= 1 − x 100
= 98.35
(b) Since the copper loss varies as the square of the current, hence total copper loss on half
load
= 3215.6 x ()2 = 803.9W
Therefore, total loss on half load = 803.9 + 2500
= 3303.9 W ≈ 3.304 kW
Output power on half load = x 340kW = 170kW
Input power on half load = output power + losses
= 170kW + 3.304kW
= 173.304kW
Hence, efficiency on half load
= 1 − x 100
= 1 − x 100
= 98.09

VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

The voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the variation of the secondary voltage
between no load and full load, expressed as either per−unit or a percentage of the no−load
voltage, the primary voltage being assumed constant. When the secondary side of a transformer
is loaded, the secondary terminal voltage V2 falls. As the power factor decreases, this voltage
drop increases. This is called the regulation of the transformer.

Percentage regulation

Regulation = x 100

Example

A kVA, 200V/400V single phase transformer has a secondary terminal voltage of 387.6 volts
when loaded. Determine the regulation of the transformer.

Solution

No load secondary voltage = 400V, terminal voltage on load = 387.6V

∴ Regulation = x 100

= x 100

= 3.1

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER

The transformer shown in Fig,3.10(a) can be resolved.

Fig.3.10(a)

Fig.3.10(a) can be transformed to an equivalent circuit where the resistance and linkage
reactance of the transformer are represented as if they are external to the windings of
transformer. The transformed circuit is shown in Fig.3.10(b)

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

Fig.3.10(b)

It is assumed that all the resistance and reactance is being on one side of the transformer. We also
assume the resistance and leakage reactance of the transformer are imagined to be external to the
winding, since the function of the winding of the transformer is to transform voltage.

NOTE: To make calculations easier, it is preferred to transfer voltage, current and impedance
either to primary or secondary, hence we have to work in one winding.

Io = no load current flows due to pure reactance Xo

E1 = V1 + I1Z1

Xo = and Ro =

Recall that = = K

Hence E’2 = primary equivalent of secondary induced voltage, = E1

V’2 = primary equivalent of secondary output voltage = V’2 =

Primary equivalent of secondary current = I’2 = KI2

For transferring secondary impedance to primary impedance ( R1 and X1 ) use K2

R’1 = , X’2 = , Z’2 =

R2’ = R2()2 = R2()2

Therefore, total equivalent resistance

Re = R1 + R2()2

Similarly, total equivalent reactance in the primary Xe,

Xe = X1 + X2()2

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

The equivalent impedance

Ze = and equivalent phase angle Øe = Cos−1( )

Therefore, the secondary circuit and its primary equivalents values are as follow in Fig.3.11(a)
and (b) respectively.

Fig.3.11(a)

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

Fig.3.11(b)

Hence Fig.3.11(b) can be added to the primary side to result into Fig.3.11(c) which is the
required equivalent circuit. However, this may pose some calculation challenges, hence to make
life easier, the exciting circuit can be transferred to either side as shown in Fig.3.11(d)

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

F
ig.3.11(c)

From Fig.3.11(c), Zeq = Z1 + Zm // (Z’2 + Z’L)

Fig.3.1
1(d)

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

Fi
g.3.11(e)

The total equivalent circuit achieved as a result of simplifying Fig.3.11(d) further is obtained as
shown below in Fig.3.11(e)

Example:

A transformer has 600 primary turns and 150 secondary turns. The primary and secondary
resistances are 0.25Ω and 0.01Ω respectively. The corresponding leakage reactance are 1.00Ω
and 0.04Ω respectively. Determine:

(a) The equivalent resistance referred to the primary winding

(b) The equivalent reactance referred to the primary winding
(c) The equivalent impedance referred to the primary winding
(d) The phase angle.

Solution

Firstly, we need to calculate the value of the voltage transformation voltage, K = = = 0.25

(a) R1e = R1 + R2()2

R1e = R1 + R2()2 = 0.25 + = 0.41Ω
(b) X1e = X1 + X2()2

X1e = X1 + X2()2 = 1.00 + = 1.64Ω

(c) Z1e = = = 1.75Ω

(d) Øe = Cos−1( ) = Øe = Cos−1( ) = 76.5o

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

Exercise: A 10kVA, 2000/400V single phase transformer has R1 = 5Ω, X1 = 12Ω, R2 = 0.2Ω,
and X2 = 0.4Ω. Determine the equivalent impedance of the transformer referred to : (a) primary
side (b) secondary side.

\AUTO-TRANSFORMERS

The transformers we have considered so far are two-winding transformers in which the
electrical circuit connected to the primary is electrically isolated from that connected to the
secondary. An auto-transformer does not provide such isolation, but has economy of cost
combined with increased efficiency. Fig.3.12 illustrates the auto-transformer which consists of a
coil of NA turns between terminals 1 and 2, with a third terminal 3 provided after NB turns. If
we neglect coil resistances and leakage fluxes, the flux linkages of the coil between 1 and 2
equals NA фm while the portion of coil between 3 and 2 has a flux linkage NB фm. If the
induced voltages are designated as EA and EB, just as in a two winding transformer,

Fig.3.12

Neglecting the magnetizing ampere-turns needed by the core for producing

flux, as in an ideal
transformer, the current IA flows through only (NA - NB) turns. If the load
current is IB, as

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

shown by Kirchhoff’s current law, the current IC flowing from terminal 3 to

terminal 2 is (IA - IB). This current flows through NB turns. So, the
requirement of a net value of zero ampere-turns across the core demands that

Consequently, as far as voltage, current converting properties are

concerned, the
autotransformer of Figure: 3.12 behaves just like a two-winding transformer.
However, in the autotransformer we don’t need two separate coils, each
designed to carry full load values of current.

PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS

It is economical to install numbers of smaller rated transformers in parallel than
installing bigger
rated electrical power transformers. This has mainly the following advantages,
To maximize electrical power system efficiency: Generally electrical power
transformer gives
the maximum efficiency at full load. If we run numbers of transformers in
parallel, we can
switch on only those transformers which will give the total demand by running
nearer to its full
load rating for that time. When load increases, we can switch none by one other
transformer
connected in parallel to fulfill the total demand. In this way we can run the

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

system with
maximum efficiency.
To maximize electrical power system availability: If numbers of transformers run
in parallel, we can shut down any one of them for maintenance purpose. Other
parallel transformers in system will serve the load without total interruption of
power.

CONDITIONS FOR PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS

When two or more transformers run in parallel, they must satisfy the following
conditions for satisfactory performance. These are the conditions for parallel
operation of transformers.
 Same voltage ratio of transformer.
 Same
percentage
impedance.
 Same
polarity.
 Same phase sequence.
 Same Voltage Ratio
SAME VOLTAGE RATIO OF TRANSFORMER
If two transformers of different voltage ratio are connected in parallel with same
primary supply
voltage, there will be a difference in secondary voltages. Now say the
secondary of these
transformers are connected to same bus, there will be a circulating current
between secondary’s
and therefore between primaries also. As the internal impedance of transformer
is small, a small voltage difference may cause sufficiently high circulating
current causing unnecessary extra I2R loss.

SAME PERCENTAGE IMPEDANCE

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

The current shared by two transformers running in parallel should be

proportional to their MVA ratings. Again, current carried by these transformers
are inversely proportional to their internal impedance. From these two
statements it can be said that, impedance of transformers running in parallel are
inversely proportional to their MVA ratings. In other words, percentage
impedance or per unit values of impedance should be identical for all the
transformers that run in parallel.
SAME POLARITY

Polarity of all transformers that run in parallel, should be the same otherwise
huge circulating
current that flows in the transformer but no load will be fed from these
transformers. Polarity of
transformer means the instantaneous direction of induced e.m.f in secondary. If
the instantaneous directions of induced secondary e.m.f in two transformers are
opposite to each other when same input power is fed to both of the
transformers, the transformers are said to be in opposite polarity. If the
instantaneous directions of induced secondary e.m.f in two transformers are same
when same input power is fed to the both of the transformers, the transformers
are said to be in same polarity.

SAME PHASE SEQUENCE

The phase sequence or the order in which the phases reach their maximum
positive voltage, must be identical for two parallel transformers. Otherwise,
during the cycle, each pair of phases will be short circuited. The above said
conditions must be strictly followed for parallel operation of transformers but
totally identical percentage impedance of two different transformers is
difficult to achieve practically, that is why the transformers run in parallel may
not have exactly same percentage impedance but the values would be as nearer
as possible.

WHY TRANSFORMER RATING IN KVA?

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

An important factor in the design and operation of electrical machines is the

relation between the life of the insulation and operating temperature of the
machine. Therefore, temperature rise resulting from the losses is a determining
factor in the rating of a machine. We know that copper loss in a transformer
depends on current and iron loss depends on voltage. Therefore, the total loss in
a transformer depends on the volt-ampere product only and not on the phase
angle between voltage and current i.e., it is independent of load power factor.
For this reason, the rating of a transformer is in kVA and not kW.
CONNECTION OF 3 SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS FOR 3 PHASE
OPERATION
Three single phase transformers can be connected together to function like a 3
phase transformer. There are various methods that can be used in this connection.
The most common connections includes: (a) Y−Y (b) Δ‒Δ (c) Y‒Δ (d) Δ‒Y
amongst other.
 Read up on these various methods

POWER OF DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER

Power transformers have high utilization factor i.e they are made to run with an
almost maximum load which is equal to their rating. The maximum efficiency is
designed to be at full load which means that the full load winding losses are equal
to their core losses while distribution transformer has intermittent and variable
load which is always less than full load rating. Maximum efficiency is designed
to occur at between and of full load.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE RISE ON TRANSFORMERS

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|53321039

The life of a transformer depends on the life of its insulation. The life of the
insulation depends on the maximum temperature at which it is run and on the
time such temperature is maintained. It is therefore important to keep the
temperature of the hottest part of the winding below the danger point and as a
means to this end it is important to know the actual temperature in the winding.
Damage to insulation occurs when the hot spot temperature exceeds 149 oC while
normal temperature is 85oC.

METHOD OF COOLING TRANSFORMER\

This is divided into three classes; they are:
 Manufacturer’s test: This is to proof that the design installation is
strictly followed and materials used are standard.
 Purchaser’s acceptance test: This test is carried out at the point of
purchase. The purchaser checks for continuity, insulation and
configuration of all parts.
 Purchaser’s periodic test: This test is done periodically to ensure the
transformer works properly after it has being installed.

Downloaded by Stephen akinnagbe ([email protected])