Module 2: The Research

Problem
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Overview

This module discusses the concepts of a research problem and how it is transformed
into a researchable question. The characteristics of good research questions are also
discussed to guide students when it is time for them to formulate their research questions for
their proposal. Finally, the different ways in defining important terms which are necessary
to facilitate readers’ understanding of a study are presented.

Learning Outcomes

After finishing this module, the students should have:

1. defined a research problem;
2. formulated research questions;
3. distinguished researchable from nonresearchable research questions;
4. described the characteristics of a good research question;
5. described and differentiated the three ways of clarifying unclear terms.

What is a Research Problem? (Fraenkel et al., 2022)

A research problem is exactly that - a problem that someone would like to research. A
problem can be anything that a person finds unsatisfactory or unsettling, a difficulty of some
sort, a state of affairs that needs to be changed, anything that is not working as well as it might.
Problems involve areas of concern to researchers, conditions they want to improve, difficulties
they want to eliminate, questions for which they seek answers.

Research Questions (Fraenkel et al., 2022)

Usually a research problem is initially posed as a question, which serves as the focus of
the researcher’s investigation. The following examples of possible research questions in
education are not sufficiently developed for actual use in a research project but would be
suitable during the early stage of formulating a research question. An appropriate methodology
and research paradigm (in parentheses) are provided for each question. Although there are other
possible methodologies that might be used, we consider those given here as particularly
suitable.

• Does client-centered therapy produce more satisfaction in clients than traditional

therapy? (experimental research; quantitative)
 • Does behavior modification reduce aggression in autistic children? (single-subject
experimental research; quantitative)
• Are the descriptions of people in social studies discussions biased? (grounded theory
research)
• What goes on in after-school programs during an average week? (ethnographic
research; qualitative)
• Do teachers behave differently toward students of different genders? (causal-
comparative research; quantitative)
• How can we predict which students might have trouble learning certain kinds of
subject matter? (correlational research; quantitative)
• How do parents feel about the school counseling program? (survey research;
quantitative)

Researchable Versus Nonresearchable Questions (Fraenkel et al., 2022)

Researchable questions are questions where data of some sort can be collected to answer
them, otherwise, the question is nonresearchable. Some examples of nonresearchable questions
are questions of value that imply notions of right and wrong, proper and improper – and
therefore does not have any empirical (or observable) referents. An example of such question
is “Should philosophy be included in the high school curriculum?”. There is no way to deal,
empirically, with the verb should. Changing the question to “Do people think philosophy
should be included in the high school curriculum?” makes it researchable. Another
nonresearchable questions are those that are metaphysical in nature – that is, beyond the
physical, transcendental. Answers to this sort of question lie beyond the accumulation of
information. An example of metaphysical question is “What is the meaning of life?”.

Characteristics of a Good Research Question (Fraenkel et al., 2022)

Once a research question has been formulated, researchers want to turn it into a good
research question. Good research questions possess four essential characteristics.
1. The question is feasible (i.e., it can be investigated without expending an undue amount of
time, energy, or money).
The following are two examples of research questions, one feasible and one not so feasible.

Feasible: How do students at X High School feel about the online schooling during
pandemic?
Not so feasible: How would achievement in schooling during pandemic be affected by
giving each student their own laptop?

2. The question is clear (i.e., most people would agree as to what the key words in the question
mean).
Consider the following research question: “Is a humanistically oriented classroom
effective?”. Although the phrase humanistically oriented classroom may seem quite clear,
many people may not be sure exactly what it means. If we ask, What is a humanistically
oriented classroom? we begin to discover that it is not as easy as we might have thought to
describe its essential characteristics. What happens in such classrooms that is different from
what happens in other classrooms? Do teachers use certain kinds of strategies? Do they
lecture? In what sorts of activities do students participate? What do such classrooms look
like - how is the seating arranged, for example? What kinds of materials are used? Is there
much variation to be found from classroom to classroom in the strategies employed by the
teacher or in the sorts of activities in which students engage? Do the kinds of materials
available and/or used vary? Another term in this question is also ambiguous. What does the
term effective mean? Does it mean “results in increased academic proficiency,” “results in
happier children,” “makes life easier for teachers,” or “costs less money”? Maybe it means
all these things and more.

The meaning of important terms used in the research question should be clarified to facilitate
readers’ understanding of the study. There are essentially three ways in defining a term.

a. Using the Constitutive Definition. Researchers simply use other words to say more
clearly what is meant. It is often referred to as the dictionary approach or the conceptual
definition.
Using the constitutive definition, humanistic classroom can be defined as:
A classroom in which: (1) the needs and interests of students have the highest priority;
(2) students work on their own for a considerable amount of time in each class period;
and (3) the teacher acts as a guide and a resource person rather than an informant.

b. Defining by Example. Researchers enumerate examples to describe or clarify the term.

Some terms used in defining the term humanistic classroom are themselves ambiguous
and using constitutive definition might not always work especially for compound terms.
Thus, a researcher may resort to defining the term by example. Researchers might think
of a few humanistic classrooms with which they are familiar and then try to describe as
fully as possible what happens in these classrooms.

c. Using the Operational Definition. Researchers specify the actions or operations

necessary to measure or identify the term. For example, here are two possible operational
definitions of the term humanistic classroom.
1. Any classroom identified by specified experts as constituting an example of a
humanistic classroom
 2. Any classroom judged (by an observer spending at least one day per week for four to
five weeks) to possess all the following characteristics: (a) No more than three
children working with the same materials at the same time; (b) The teacher never
spending more than 20 minutes per day addressing the class as a group; etc.

3. The question is Significant (i.e., it is worth investigating because it will contribute important
knowledge about the human condition).
Three important questions should be asked:
a. How might answers to this research question advance knowledge in my field?
b. How might answers to this research question improve educational practice?
c. How might answers to this research question improve the human condition?

4. The question is Ethical (i.e., it will not involve physical or psychological harm or damage
to human beings or to the natural or social environment of which they are a part).
For example, a question about how effective punishment is in improving students’
performance in a task is unethical and should be avoided.

Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses (Creswell, 2014)

In quantitative studies, investigators use quantitative research questions and

hypotheses, and sometimes objectives, to shape and specifically focus the purpose of the study.
Quantitative research questions inquire about the relationships among variables that the
investigator seeks to know.
The following are guidelines for writing good quantitative research questions and
hypotheses:
1. The use of variables in research questions or hypotheses is typically limited to three basic
approaches. The researcher may compare groups on an independent variable to see its
impact on a dependent variable (this would be an experiment or group comparisons).
Alternatively, the investigator may relate one or more independent variables to one or more
dependent variables (this would be a survey that correlates variables). Third, the researcher
may describe responses to the independent, mediating, or dependent variables (this would
be a descriptive study). Most quantitative research falls into one or more of these three
categories.
2. The most rigorous form of quantitative research follows from a test of a theory and the
specification of research questions or hypotheses that logically follow from the relationship
among variables in the theory.
3. The independent and dependent variables must be measured separately and not measured
on the same concept. This procedure reinforces the cause-and-effect logic of quantitative
research.
4. To eliminate redundancy, write only research questions or hypotheses - not both – unless
the hypotheses build on the research questions. Choose the form based on tradition,
recommendations from an adviser or faculty committee, or whether past research indicates
a prediction about outcomes.
5. If hypotheses are used, there are two forms: (a) null and (b) alternative.

Qualitative Research Questions (Creswell, 2014)

In a qualitative study, inquirers state research questions, not objectives (i.e., specific
goals for the research) or hypotheses (i.e., predictions that involve variables and statistical
tests). These research questions assume two forms: (a) a central question and (b) associated
sub-questions.
1. Ask one or two central research questions. The central question is a broad question that asks
for an exploration of the central phenomenon or concept in a study. The inquirer poses this
question, consistent with the emerging methodology of qualitative research, as a general
issue so as not to limit the views of participants.
2. Ask no more than five to seven sub-questions in addition to your central questions. Several
sub-questions follow each general central question; they narrow the focus of the study but
leave open the questioning.
3. Relate the central question to the specific qualitative strategy of inquiry. The specificity of
the questions in ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, narrative inquiry, and case
study differs depending on the type of information these designs want to obtain.
4. Begin the research questions with the words what or how to convey an open emerging
design. The word why often implies that the researcher is trying to explain why something
occurs, and this suggests probable cause-and-effect thinking that is associated with
quantitative research and that limits the explanations rather than opening them up for
participant views.
5. Focus on a single phenomenon or concept. As a study develops over time, factors will
emerge that may influence this single phenomenon, but begin a study with a single focus to
explore in great detail.
6. Use exploratory verbs that convey the language of emerging design. These verbs tell the
reader that the study does the following:
a. Report (or reflect) the stories (e.g., narrative research)
b. Describe the essence of the experience (e.g., phenomenology)
c. Discover (e.g., grounded theory)
d. Seek to understand (e.g., ethnography)
e. Explore a process (e.g., case study)
7. Use these more exploratory verbs as nondirectional rather than directional words that
suggest quantitative research, such as effect, influence, impact, determine, cause, and
relate.
8. Expect the research questions to evolve and change during the study in a manner consistent
with the assumptions of an emerging design. Often in qualitative studies, the questions are
under continual review and reformulation.
9. Use open-ended questions without reference to the literature or theory unless otherwise
indicated by a qualitative strategy of inquiry.
10. Specify the participants and the research site for the study if the information has not yet
been given.

Suggested Reading

Read the article of Agee (2009) on developing qualitative research questions to gain
understanding how central and sub questions are developed in qualitative research.
 Research Exercise 2

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Refining the Research Topic and Formulating the Research Questions

Directions: Answer the following items. This is an individual activity.

1. Choose one of the three topics identified. Write an appropriate general question (for
quantitative research) or central question (for qualitative research) for your research project.
2. Why is this question appropriate for the chosen research design?
3. What relevant specific questions (for quantitative research) or sub-questions (for qualitative
research) may be formulated?
4. Identify the key terms in the formulated research questions and provide the constitutive and
operational definition of the terms.