DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY

ABUBAKAR TAFAWA BALEWA UNIVERSITY,BAUCHI

ARC 312 LECTURE NOTES

STEEL

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon containing less than 2% carbon and 1% manganese and small amounts
of silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and oxygen. Steel is the world's most important engineering and
construction materia. It is used in every aspect of our lives; in cars and construction products,
refrigerators and washing machines, cargo ships and surgical scalpels. It can be recycled over and over
again without loss of property.

Properties of steel
Steel has a number of properties, including: hardness, toughness,tensile strength,yield strength.elongation,

fatigue strength, corrosion, plasticity,malleability and creep.

HARDNESS
Is the material's ability to withstand friction and abrasion. It is worth noting that while it may mean the

same as strength and toughness in colloquial language; this is very different from strength and toughness

in the context of metal properties.

TOUGHNESS
Is difficult to define but generally is the ability to absorb energy without fracturing or rupturing.It is also
defined as a material's resistance to fracture when stressed. It is usually measured in foot lbs. per sq. in or
Joules per sq. centimetre. It is important to distinguish this from hardness as a material that severely
deforms without breaking, could be considered extremely tough, but not hard.

YEILD strength is a measurement of the force required to start the deformation of the material (i.e.
 bending o warping).TENSILE strength is a measurement of the force required to break the material.

ELONGATION (or Ductility) is the “Degree" to which the material can be stretched or compressed before it
breaks. It is expressed as a percent of the length being tested and is between the tensile strength and yield
strength (i.e. wwhat percent does the material bend before breaking).FATIGUE strength is the highest stress
that a material can withstand for a given number of cycles without breaking.

CORROSION is the irreversible deterioration and destruction of the steel material and its vital properties
due to the electrochemical or chemical reaction of its surface to environmental factors such as acids,
moisture and oxygen.

PLASTICITY is the deformation of a material undergoing non-reversible changes of shape in response to

applied forces.

MALLEABILITY describes the property of a metal's ability to be distorted below compression.It is a physical
property of metals by which they can be hammered,shaped and rolled into a very thin sheet without
rupturing.

CREEP is a type of metal deformation that occurs at stresses below the yield strength of a metal,generally at elevated
temperatures.

Uses of steel:

·Steel is environment-friendly & sustainable. It possess great durability.

· Compared to other materials, steel requires a low amount of energy to produce lightweight steel
construction.

·Steel is the world's most recycled material which can be recycled very easily. Its unique magnetic properties
make it an easy material to recover from stream to be recycled.

Steel can be designed into various forms. It gives better shape and edge than iron which is usedto make
weapons.

·Engineering steels are used for general engineering and manufacturing sectors.
·Steel is highly used in the automobile industry. Different types of steels are used in a car body. doors,
engine, suspension, and interior. The average 50% of a car is made of steel.

Steel reduces CO2emissions.

·All types of energy sectors demand steel for infrastructure and resource extraction.
·Stainless steels are used to produce offshore platforms and pipelines.

·Steels are used for packaging and protecting goods from-water, air and light exposure.

Most of the household appliances like fridge, TV. oven, sinks, etc are made of steel.

Steels are used for producing industrial goodies like farm vehicles and machines.

Stainless steel is used as a cutlery material.

· Because of its easily welding capability and altractive finishing,steel has become a prominent feature

in modern architecture.

·Stainless steel gives a hygienic environment. That's why it is used for surgical implants.

·Steel has a wider range of temperature which is used to make large sheets.

·Renewable energy resources like solar, hydro and wind power use the stainless steel components.

·Mild steel is used for building construction. It is also a highly favoured building frame material.

Various tests done on STEEL REBAR are:

1. Tensile test

2.Compression test

3.Bending test

4.Brinell hardness test

5. Rockwell hardness test

6.Impact test

7.Torsion test

TENSILE TEST:

This tensile test process is one of the important tests of the steel bars. A tension test of stcel materials is a
damaging procedure that gives data about the elasticity, tensile strength and yield strength of the sample.
This tensile test is done to decide how the material responds when you apply a force to it. Generally, by
pulling the metal, one has to recognize the material's rigidity.yield quality just as the amount it will extend.
Tension test is the basic criteria where one present a steel bar test to tension which is under control until
failure stage.
2.COMPRESSION TEST:

The compressive quality is the most extreme compressive stress a material is equipped for withstanding
without crack. Brittle materials crack during testing and have a definite compressive strength value. The
compressive strength of flexible materials is dictated by their level of bending during testing. Compressive
quality test,mechanical test estimating the greatest measure of compressive burden a material can
tolerate before breaking.

3.BENDING TEST

Bend testing a material takes into consideration that materials resistance to fracture, ductility.fracture

strength and bend strength. These qualities can be utilized to decide if a material will fail under pressure
and are important in any construction procedure including ductile materials loaded with bending forces.

If a material starts to break or totally cracks during a bend test it is valid to accept that the material will

fail under a similar in any application, which may prompt to catastrophic failure.

4.BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

The Brinell test was the first broadly utilized standardised steel hardness test. It requires a huge test piece
and leaves a huge space; hence, it is constrained in its usefulness.Actually brinelling has come to mean the
permanent indentation of any hard surface. These Brinell hardness test involves a large, heavy ball, which
is pushed against steel at a predetermined level of force.

5. ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

The Rockwell test is commonly simpler to perform, and more exact than different kinds of hardness testing

techniques. The Rockwell steel test strategy is utilized on all kinds of metals,wvith the exception of in

conditions where the test metal structure or surface conditions would present an excessive amount of

varieties; where the indentations would be unreasonably enormous for the application; or where the

sample size or test shape forbids using.

6.IMPACT TEST

Impact test decides the amount of energy consumed by a material during crack. This absorbed energy is a
measure of a given material's strength and goes about as a device to consider temperature-dependent
weak flexible progress. It is to decide if the material is fragile or malleable in nature. Impact testing of
metals is performed to decide the effect opposition or durability of materials by figuring the measure of
energy absorbed during fracture. The impact test is performed at different temperatures to reveal any
consequences on impact energy. These services give test results that can be helpful in evaluating the
suitability of a material for a specific application and in predicting its expected service life.

7.TORSION TEST

The reason for a torsion test is to decide the behaviour a material or test shows when turned or under torsional
forces because of applied moments that cause shear stress about the axis.

Measurable values include: the modulus of ductility, ultimate shear strength, elasticity in shear modulus
of rupture in shear, yied shear strength and torsional fatigue life. These values are similar but not the
same as those measured by a tensile test and are significant in assembling as they might be utilized to
simulate the service conditions,check the item's quality and structure, and guarantee that it was made
effectively.

4. CAST IRON:
Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content of more than 2%. Its usefulness derives
from its relatively low melting temperature. Iron alloys with lower carbon content are known as steel. Cast

iron tends to be brittle. except for malleablecast irons.

Use of cast iron:

It is used in making pipes.to carry suitable fluids.

·It is used in making different machines.

·it is used in making automotive parts.

It is sred in making pots pans and mtensils.

·ht is used in making anchor for ships.
5.WROUGHT IRON

Wrought iron is a soft, ductile, fibrous variety that is produced from a semi-fused mass of relatively
pure iron globules partially surrouinded by slag. It usually contains less than 0.1percent carbon and I
or 2 percent slag. It is superior for most purposes to cast iron,which is overly hard and brittle owing
to its high carbon content.

Use of wrought iron:

It is used to make decor items like table base, candle holder, curtain rods etc.

It is used in making pipes.

It is used in making fences and gates.

It is used in making nuts, bolts, rivets etc.

·It is used in making chains.

It is used in making crane hooks.

· It is used in making plates.

It is used in making handrails.

· It is used in making carpenter tools.

It is used in general forging applications.

It is used in making railway couplings.

6.ALUMINIUM:

Aluminium is a silvery-white metal, the 13 element in the periodic table. It's the most widespread metal
on Earth, making up more than 8% of the Earth's core mass. It's also the third most common chemical
element on our planet after oxygen and silicon.
Uses of aluminium

.Aluminium is widely used in the packaging industry for the production of coils,cans.

foils. and other wrapping materials.

·It is also a component of many commonly used items such as utensils and watches.

In construction industries, aluminium is employed in the manufacture of doors.

windows. wires, and roofing.
· It is used in the transport industry for the production of cycles, spacecraft, car bodies.aircraft and marine parts.

·Many coins are made up of alloys that contain aluminium.

·Aluminium also finds applications in the production of paints, reflective surfaces, and wires.

7.COPPER:

It is a metallic chemical element that is easily formed into sheets and wires and is one of the best -known conductors of
heat and electricity.

Uses of copper

·Copper sulphate is used widely as an agricultural poison and as an algaecide in water purification.

·While one may not consider copper being used for something other than coins, it is a crucial element in the
creation of bronze.

·Historically, copper was the first metal to be worked by people. The discovery that it could be hardened
with a little tin to form the alloy bronze gave the name to the Bronze Age.

· It is used for a whole range of goods. from cans, cooking foil and saucepans through to electricity cables, planes.
and space vehicles.

·Electrical conductivity is especially important because wire accounts for more than 50% of copper
consumption worldwide.

· Chemical vapour deposition,which is used in semiconductor manufacture, involves the deposition of thin copper
films from a gas-phase precursor.
·Copper is used largely as an alloy of gold and silver. and it is often plated with one or the other.
8.GLASS:

Glass is an inorganic solid material that is usually transparent or translucent as well as hard. Brittle. and
impervious to the natural elements. Glass has been made into practical and decorative objects since
ancient times, and it is still very important in applications as disparate as building construction, house
wares, and telecommunications. It is made by cooling molten ingredients such as silica sand with
sufficient rapidity to prevent the formation of visible crystals.

TYPES OF GLASS

1) Annealed Glass
Annealed glass is a basic product formed from the annealing stage of the float process. The molten
glass is allowed to cool slowly in a controlled way until it reaches room temperature, relieving any
internal stresses in the glass. Without this controlled slow cooling, glass would crack with relatively
little change in temperature or slight mechanical shock. Annealed glass is used as a base product to
form more advanced glass types.

2) Heat Strengthened Glass

Heat Strengthened Glass is semi tempered or semi toughened glass. The heat strengthening process
involves heating annealed glass back up to about 650 to 700 degrees Celsius and then cooling it quickly,
although not as fast as with toughened glass. The heat strengthening process increases the mechanical
and thermal strength of annealed glass, making it twice as tough as annealed glass. When it breaks the
fragments are similar in size to annealed glass, but with a greater likelihood of staying together. This glass
is not often used in balustrades or similar structural applications because of its limited strength compared
to tempered or toughened glass. Although is sometimes specified when there is concern about tempered
glass fracturing inio thousands of small pieces.

3) Tempered or Toughened Glass

This is the most common type of glass used in balustrades or similar structural applications. Annealed
glass is heated to about 700 degrees Celsius by conduction, convection and radiation. The cooling process
is accelerated by a uniform and simultaneous blast of air on both surfaces. The different cooling rates
between the surface and the inside of the glass produces different physical properties, resulting in
compressive stresses in the surace balanced by tensile stresses in the body of the glass. This process
makes the glass four to five times stronger and safer than annealed or untreated glass.

The counteracting stresses or surface compression gives toughened glass its increased mechanical
resistance to breakage, and when it does break, causes it to produce small,regular.typically square
fragments rather than long, dangerous shards that are far more likely to lead to injuries.

4) Laminated Glass

Any one of the above types of glass can be laminated. The most commonly used finished product is two
sheets of toughened glass, laminated together with a 1.52mm thick Polyiynil Butyral (PVB) interlayer.
Laminated glass offers many advantages. Safety and security are the best known of these. so rather than
shattering on impact, laminated glass is held together by the interlayer. This reduces the safety hazard
associated with shattered glass fragments, as well as.to some degree,the security risks associated with easy
penetration.

Uses Glass

·Packaging (jars for food. bottles for drinks. flacon for cosmetics and pharmaceuticals)

·Tableware (drinking glasses,plate.cups,bowls)

· Housing and buildings (windows, facades, conservatory, insulation,reinforcement structures)

.interior design and furniture (mirrors, partitions, balustrades, tables, shelves,lighting)

.Appliances and Electronics (oven doors, cook top. TV, computer screens, smartphones)

.Automotive and transport (windscreens, backlights, light weight but reinforced structural components of cars,

aircrafts, ships. etc.)

.Medical technology, biotechnology. life science engineering. Optical glass

.Radiation protection from X-Rays (radiology) and gamma-rays (nuclear)

·Fibre optic cables (phones .IV, computer to carry information)

·Renewable energy (solar-energy glass, wind turbines)

9.GYPSUM:
Gypsum is a soft sulphate mineral composed of calcium sulphate dehydrate, with the chemical formula
CaSO4·2H2O. It is widely mined and is used as a fertilizer and as the main constituent in many forms of
plaster, blackboard/sidewalk chalk, and drywall.

Sources of gypsum
·Gypsum can be mined from deposits or derived as a by-product from industrial processing.

。Synthetic gypsum can come from citric and lactic acid processing plants, phosphoric acid processing

plants, or water treatment plants.

·It can also come from commercial power plants when calcium carbonate is used to neutralize acid
solutions or capture sulphuric oxides for exhaust gases.

·Some of these synthetic gypsum products are similar to mined gypsum in terms of their dehydrate
equivalent however some sources can contain metal or radioactive contaminants and shouldn't be
land applied.

Properties of Gypsum

·Gypsum is a soft mineral that is moderately soluble in water. The water solubility of this mineral is
affected by temperature. Unlike other salts, gypsum becomes less soluble in water as the
temperature increases. This is known as retrograde solubility, which is a distinguishing characteristic
of gypsum.

·Gypsum is usually white, colourless, or gray in colour. But sometimes, it can also be found in the shades
of pink, yellow, brown, and light green, mainly due to the presence of impurities.

·Gypsum crystals can be transparent or translucent with vitreous to

pearly luster. Sometimes, gypsum crystals can be quite large, and are considered to be some of the largest
crystals found in nature.

·Some crystals can be flexible, which can be bent by applying pressure. But,when the
pressure is released, the crystals do not return to their original shape, as they are not elastic.
·Gypsum crystals are sometimes found to occur in a form that resembles the petals of a flower.
This type of formation is referred to as 'desert rose’, as they mostly occur in arid areas or desert
terrains.

Uses of Gypsums-Some of the Important Uses of Gypsums Include:

1.Building materials industry:
The largest user of gypsums is the building materials industry, which is used to produce all kinds of building
materials and as raw materials for cement and cementing materials.

The production of gypsum partition board, load-bearing inner wallboard,external wall block,wall covering
board,ceiling and so on.

2.Model plaster:
Model gypsum can be used in foundry, art, ceramics and other industries.

3.Agriculture:
It can be used to producesulphuric acid and ammonium sulfate fertilizer.

Anhydrite can adjust soil pH, improve the soil environment, and provide calcium,sulfur and other nutrients for
various fertilizers.

4.Food industry:

In terms of food, gypsum can coagulate soybean milk intotofu, and it can also be used as a coagulant in canned
tomatoes.

5.Pharmaceutical industry:
Plaster external fixationis still the basic method for clinical treatment of fractures and various orthopaedic diseases.

It has the functions of maintaining,fixing and maintaining the special posture of the affected limb,reducing or
eliminating the weight-bearing of the affected area, and so on.

6.Fillers for plastics and rubber:

After processing. anhydrite can be used as a filler for plastics and rubber.
The modified anhydrite filler can improve the mechanical strength,heat resistance and dimensional stability of
the polymer.

7.Production of calcium sulfate whisker:

Gypsum can be transformed into a calcium sulfate whisker in an aqueous medium under the
conditions of high temperature and high pressure.
Calcium sulfate whisker can be used as reinforced filler in resin matrix composites,friction materials,
binders and other industries.

10.PLASTIC:
Plastics are a wide range of synthetie or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as a main
ingredient. Their plasticity makes it possible for plastics to be moulded. extruded or pressed into solid
objects of various shapes. This adaptability, plus a wide range of other properties. such as being
lighnveight, durable, flexible, and inexpensive to produce, has led to its widespread use.Plasties typically
are made through human industrial systems. Most modern plastics are derived from fossil fueibased
chemicals like natural gas or petroleum; however, recent industrial methods use variants made from
renewable materials, such as corn or cotton derivatives.

Properties of Plastics
·They are light in weight and is chemically stable.
·Easily moulded into different shapes and sizes.
·Good insulation and low thermal conductivity.
·Good impact resistance and they do not rust.
·Good transparency and wear resistance.
·Poor dimensional stability and can be easily deformed.
·Low processing cost. Different
Types of Plastic Plastics are of
Two Types:

1.Thermoplastics
2.Thermosetting Plastic Thermoplastics:

The term 'thermoplastic' refers to plastics that do not undergo any chemical changes when
subjected to high temperatures. These plastics do not undergo any changes in their chemical
structures and chemical compositions when subjected to heat and can be changed into a soft state
and remoulded multiple times.
Examples: Polystyrene. Tellon.Acrylic. Nylon,etc.
Thermosetting Plastics:
They are also known as thermosets, and are plastics that can be moulded only once and do not change
shape on applying heat. These plastics can only be moulded once and they cannot be softened on
further heating. These plastics undergo degradation and become damaged when exposed to a large
amount of heat.

Examples: Vulcanized rubber, Bakelite, Polyurethane, Epoxy resin, Vinyl ester resin,etc.

Uses of Plastics

Plastics are highly durable, lightweight and most importantly can be moulded into any form or
shape.These properties account for the largest usage of plastics. plastics are extremely versatile materials
and can be used for a wide variety of purposes. Some usage of plastics are given below:

1. The ability to be moulded makes plastic an ideal packaging material. Plastics in packaging help to keep
foods safe and fresh.

2. Being durable and lightweight, plastics have helped in the electronic field. From computers and cell
phones to television and microwave, almost all appliances around us make some use of plastic.

3. Plastics are used to make safety gear like helmets, goggles etc. Plastics are used in the construction
industry due to their low maintenance and hnigh durability.

4. Plastic is strong and lightweight, that is why it is useful in making toys,electrical switches and other
household products.

5.Being non-reactive with air and water,plastic is used to store water in plastic bottles and other chemicals
in chemical laboratories.

6. Piastic is a poor conductor of electricity and heat. Its insulation property is used for coating the electric
wire and to make handles of cooking utensils and various household products.