WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

MODULE 2- ELEMEMTARY KNOWLEDGE OF GROUND WATER

WATER BEARING HORIZONS/ AQUIFERS AND TYPES

Unconfined (Open aquifers):-

1. Direct contact with the atmosphere through pore spaces in the soil.
2. Shallow and prone to contamination from surface effluents.
3. Mainly depends on seasonal rainfalls that refill the aquifer.

Confined (Closed aquifers):-

1. Do not have direct contact with the atmosphere.
2. Deep and no contamination effects.
3. Mainly depends on seasonal rainfall

AQUIFER: An aquifer is defined as a porous and permeable geological formation capable of storing
and yielding water in sufficient quantity.
AQUICLUDE: Contain water but incapable of transmit sufficient quantities of water to wells. Eg.
Shale, clay.
AQUIFUSE: Neither containing nor transmitting water to wells. Eg., Granite, dolerite, quartzite
AQUITARD: It is a saturated formation which yields inappreciable quantities of water to wells.
Eg.,Marly limestone, shell sandstone

A perched water table is an accumulation of groundwater that is above the water table in the
unsaturated zone. The groundwater is usually trapped above an impermeable soil layer, such as clay,
and actually forms a lens of saturated material in the unsaturated zone.

WATER QUALITY AND ITS IMPACT ON HUMAN BEINGS

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

Poor water quality, caused by contamination from various sources, poses significant health risks to
humans, leading to diseases and even death, and underscores the importance of clean water access and
sanitation.
Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water, determining its
suitability for various uses such as drinking, industrial applications, and agriculture. Water is an essential
resource for human survival, and its quality has a direct impact on public health, environmental
sustainability, and industrial processes.

Parameters of Water Quality

Water quality is assessed based on several parameters:
1. Physical Parameters
o Turbidity: The presence of suspended particles that can affect water clarity.
o Temperature: Influences dissolved oxygen levels and microbial activity.
o Color and Odor: Indicate contamination from organic matter or industrial pollutants.
2. Chemical Parameters
o pH: Determines the acidity or alkalinity of water, affecting its corrosiveness.
o Dissolved Oxygen (DO): Essential for aquatic life; low levels indicate pollution.
o Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): Measure
organic pollution levels.
o Heavy Metals (Lead, Mercury, Arsenic, Cadmium, etc.): Toxic even in small
quantities.
o Nitrates and Phosphates: Excess amounts lead to eutrophication in water bodies.
o Salinity: High salinity affects drinking water taste and agricultural irrigation.
3. Biological Parameters
o Bacteria (e.g., E. coli, coliform bacteria): Indicate fecal contamination.
o Viruses and Parasites: Cause waterborne diseases such as cholera and dysentery.

Sources of Water Pollution

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

Water contamination can occur due to various sources:

• Industrial Discharges: Release of chemicals, heavy metals, and waste products into water bodies.
• Agricultural Runoff: Pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers leach into water sources.
• Municipal Wastewater: Untreated sewage leads to microbial contamination.
• Oil Spills and Chemical Leaks: Contaminate surface and groundwater resources.
• Plastics and Microplastics: Persistent pollutants that harm aquatic life and human health.

Water Quality Standards and Treatment Methods

Governments and organizations set standards for water quality:
• World Health Organization (WHO): Provides guidelines for safe drinking water.
• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Sets legal limits on contaminants.
• Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) and Indian Council of Medical Research
(ICMR): Define acceptable limits for drinking water in India.

Water Treatment Processes

1. Sedimentation and Filtration: Removes suspended solids.
2. Coagulation and Flocculation: Uses chemicals to aggregate impurities.
3. Chlorination and UV Treatment: Disinfects water by killing pathogens.
4. Reverse Osmosis (RO) and Desalination: Removes dissolved salts and contaminants.
5. Activated Carbon Filtration: Eliminates organic pollutants and odors.

Impact of Poor Water Quality on Human Health

1. Waterborne Diseases
o Contaminated water can cause diseases like cholera, typhoid, hepatitis, and dysentery.
2. Heavy Metal Toxicity
o Long-term exposure to lead, arsenic, and mercury can lead to neurological disorders,
kidney damage, and cancer.
3. Eutrophication and Algal Blooms
o Excess nutrients lead to oxygen depletion, harming aquatic life and reducing water
usability.
4. Disruptions in Industrial and Domestic Use
o Poor water quality affects manufacturing processes, cooling systems, and irrigation
efficiency.

Some more detailed breakdown of the impact:

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

1. Waterborne Diseases:
• Pathogens: Contaminated water can harbor disease-causing bacteria, viruses, and parasites,
leading to illnesses like cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and hepatitis A.
• Diarrheal Diseases: Poor water quality and sanitation are major contributors to diarrheal diseases,
which are a leading cause of childhood deaths globally.
• Other Waterborne Diseases: Other diseases linked to contaminated water include giardia, and
Legionnaires' disease.
2. Chemical Contamination:
• Heavy Metals: Exposure to heavy metals like arsenic and lead through contaminated drinking
water can cause long-term health problems, including developmental issues in children, and
cardiovascular and kidney problems.
• Pesticides and Pharmaceuticals: Residues of pesticides and pharmaceuticals can contaminate
water sources, potentially leading to neurological, reproductive, and other health issues.
• Microplastics: The ingestion of microplastics, small fragments of plastic, can accumulate in the
body and have potential health effects, including reduced immunity and fertility.
3. Specific Health Effects:
• Gastrointestinal Issues: Contaminated water can cause stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and
dehydration.
• Skin Problems: Contact with contaminated water can lead to skin rashes and infections.
• Organ Damage: Exposure to certain chemicals in contaminated water can damage organs like the
liver and kidneys.
• Cancer: Some water contaminants, like arsenic, are known carcinogens, increasing the risk of
certain types of cancer.
• Developmental Problems: Exposure to certain contaminants, like lead, can negatively impact the
development of children.
4. Global Impact:
• Millions Affected: Millions of people worldwide lack access to safe drinking water and sanitation,
leading to preventable illnesses and deaths.
• Disproportionate Impact: Low-income communities are often disproportionately affected by water
pollution, as they may be located near polluting industries or lack access to clean water
infrastructure.
• Economic Costs: Poor water quality and sanitation lead to significant economic costs, including
healthcare expenses, lost productivity, and reduced economic growth.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

Water quality is crucial for human health, environmental sustainability, and industrial development.
Engineering students must understand the significance of water treatment technologies and pollution
control measures to ensure clean water for all. Sustainable water management practices, strict pollution
control regulations, and advancements in water purification methods are necessary to maintain water
quality and prevent adverse health effects on human populations.

WATER HARVESTING AND NEED

Water harvesting, the collection and storage of rainwater for later use, is crucial due to increasing water
scarcity and drought, offering a sustainable solution for water management and reducing reliance on
conventional water sources.
Water harvesting refers to the collection and storage of rainwater for various uses, including drinking,
irrigation, and groundwater recharge. With increasing water scarcity and climate change, water harvesting
is essential to ensure sustainable water management.

Rainwater Harvesting System

Below is a diagram illustrating a Rainwater Harvesting System. It shows how rainwater is collected
from rooftops, filtered, and stored for various uses:
Groundwater Recharge System
The following diagram explains the process of Groundwater Recharge, depicting recharge wells and
percolation pits facilitating water infiltration:

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

NEED OF WATER HARVESTING OR NECESSITY/ IMPORTANCE OF WATER

HARVESTING
1. Water Conservation: Reduces dependency on traditional water sources by maximizing local
rainfall utilization.
2. Drought Mitigation: Ensures water availability in dry seasons, crucial for arid and semi-arid
regions.
3. Groundwater Replenishment: Helps restore depleted aquifers and prevents land subsidence.
4. Agricultural Sustainability: Provides irrigation support, reducing reliance on unpredictable
rainfall.
5. Urban Water Management: Mitigates urban flooding by capturing runoff water.
6. Cost Reduction: Reduces dependency on municipal water supply, lowering water bills and energy
consumption in pumping.
7. Improved Water Quality: Naturally filtered rainwater can be a cleaner alternative to some
traditional sources.
8. Addressing Water Scarcity: Water scarcity is a growing global issue, and water harvesting helps
to supplement traditional water sources, especially during dry periods.
9. Reducing Reliance on Groundwater: Over-extraction of groundwater can lead to depletion and
contamination. Water harvesting helps reduce this dependence.
10. Improving Water Quality:Harvested rainwater is often of higher quality than surface or
groundwater, as it is free from many pollutants.
11. Sustainable Water Management: Water harvesting promotes sustainable water management
practices by conserving water resources and ensuring their availability for future use.
12. Flood Control: By capturing and storing rainwater, water harvesting can help reduce runoff and
the risk of flooding in urban areas.
13. Cost-Effective:Water harvesting can be a cost-effective solution compared to traditional water
infrastructure, especially in rural areas.
14. Agricultural Benefits: Harvested water can be used for irrigation, supporting agricultural
productivity and food security.

Types of Water Harvesting Methods

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

1. Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting (RRH): Collecting rainwater from rooftops and directing it to
storage tanks or recharge pits.
2. Surface Runoff Harvesting: Capturing rainwater from open land and roads to recharge aquifers.
3. Check Dams and Percolation Pits: Slowing water flow in rivers to increase percolation and
recharge groundwater.
4. Farm Ponds and Percolation Tanks: Storing rainwater for agricultural use.
5. Recharge Wells and Injection Wells: Directly injecting rainwater into deep aquifers.
6. Bunding and Contour Trenches: Creating barriers along slopes to slow water movement and
encourage infiltration.
Implementation Strategies
1. Household Level: Installation of rainwater harvesting tanks with filtration systems.
2. Community-Level Water Harvesting: Development of check dams, percolation ponds, and
artificial recharge structures.
3. Government and Policy Initiatives:
o Providing incentives and subsidies for rainwater harvesting.
o Enforcing rainwater harvesting regulations in urban planning.
o Promoting awareness campaigns on water conservation.
Water harvesting is a crucial technique for sustainable water management. Engineering solutions and
awareness programs must be promoted to enhance water conservation efforts and ensure water security
for future generations. Proper planning and technology-driven interventions can make water harvesting
an effective tool to combat water scarcity.

PRINCIPLES OF WATER HARVESTING

The principle of water harvesting is to capture rainwater and store it for later use. This helps to reduce the
demand on groundwater and surface water. Water harvesting refers to the collection and storage of
rainwater for various uses, including drinking, irrigation, and groundwater recharge. With increasing
water scarcity and climate change, water harvesting is essential to ensure sustainable water management.
Water harvesting, at its core, involves collecting and storing precipitation (like rainwater) for later use,
rather than allowing it to run off or evaporate. This principle aims to increase water availability in areas
with limited resources and can be applied to various scales, from individual homes to large-scale
agricultural projects.

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

Principles of Water Harvesting

Water harvesting is based on several fundamental principles:
1. Efficient Rainwater Collection: Ensuring that maximum rainwater is captured using rooftops,
catchment areas, or surface runoff techniques.
2. Minimizing Evaporation Losses: Using covered storage tanks, underground reservoirs, and
shaded catchment areas to reduce water loss.
3. Filtration and Purification: Ensuring that harvested water is free from contaminants by using
gravel, sand, charcoal, or modern filtration techniques.
4. Proper Storage and Maintenance: Storing water in clean, leak-proof containers with periodic
maintenance to prevent contamination.
5. Integration with Groundwater Recharge: Directing excess water into percolation pits, recharge
wells, or check dams to replenish groundwater resources.
6. Community Participation and Awareness: Promoting awareness and community involvement
to maximize benefits and ensure proper maintenance of water harvesting structures.
7. Site-Specific Design: Adapting harvesting methods to suit local climate, topography, and water
demand.

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

WORKING:
1. Catchment Rainwater is collected from a catchment area, such as a rooftop, compound, or hill
slope.
2. .Channel Gutters and downspouts direct the water into a storage vessel, like a tank or barrel.
3. Filter Water is filtered to remove turbidity, color, and microorganisms.
4. Use The stored water can be used for irrigation, landscaping, flushing toilets, and drinking.
ADVANTAGES:
• Reduces runoff: Collecting rainwater before it hits the ground reduces surface runoff, which can
lead to erosion and water pollution.
• Recharges aquifers: Reserving rainwater can help recharge local aquifers.
• Reduces flooding: Rainwater harvesting can reduce urban flooding.
• Ensures water availability: Rainwater harvesting can help ensure water availability in water-
scarce zones.
Rainwater harvesting is a sustainable approach to water management and a key solution to water scarcity.
Water harvesting is a crucial technique for sustainable water management. Engineering solutions and
awareness programs must be promoted to enhance water conservation efforts and ensure water security
for future generations. Proper planning and technology-driven interventions can make water harvesting
an effective tool to combat water scarcity.
Water harvesting refers to the collection and storage of rainwater for various uses, including drinking,
irrigation, and groundwater recharge. With increasing water scarcity and climate change, water harvesting
is essential to ensure sustainable water management.

GENERAL WATER HARVESTING METHODS

General water harvesting methods involve collecting and storing rainwater for later use, with common
techniques including rooftop harvesting, surface runoff collection, and groundwater recharge.
Here's a more detailed explanation of these methods:

1. Rainwater Harvesting (RWH): Collection of rainwater from rooftops and open surfaces for
direct use or storage.
2. Groundwater Recharge: Techniques like recharge wells and percolation ponds to replenish
underground water levels.
3. Check Dams and Percolation Tanks: Small barriers across streams to hold back water and
increase percolation.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

4. Contour Bunding and Trenching: Used in agricultural fields to slow down surface runoff and
increase infiltration.
5. Farm Ponds: Small reservoirs on farmlands to store runoff water for irrigation and livestock.
6. Floodwater Harvesting: Capturing excess floodwater in reservoirs for later use.
7. Underground Storage Tanks: Storing harvested water underground to reduce evaporation losses.
8. Urban Stormwater Management: Collecting and utilizing stormwater in cities for groundwater
recharge and landscaping.
9. Watershed Management: Implementing multiple water conservation techniques across a large
catchment area.

• Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting:

• This involves collecting rainwater that falls on building roofs and directing it into storage
tanks or cisterns.
• Gutters and downpipes are used to channel the water from the roof to the storage.
• This method is particularly effective in urban areas where rooftops provide a large
catchment area.
• Surface Runoff Harvesting:
• This method focuses on collecting rainwater that flows over the ground surface, such as
from roads, fields, or other open areas.
• Ponds, reservoirs, and large collection tanks are used to capture and store the runoff.
• This approach is crucial in areas with significant surface runoff during rainfall events.
• Groundwater Recharge:
• This involves artificially replenishing groundwater aquifers by infiltrating rainwater into
the soil.
• Methods include recharge pits, recharge trenches, and other structures that facilitate the
movement of water into the ground.
• This approach helps to increase the availability of groundwater resources.
• Other Considerations:
• Catchment Area: The surface area that receives rainfall and contributes water to the
harvesting system.
• Storage: Storage tanks or cisterns are essential for holding the collected water for later
use.
• Water Quality: Ensuring the collected water is clean and safe for intended use is
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

important.
• Sustainability: Water harvesting promotes sustainable water management by reducing
reliance on traditional water sources and conserving water resources.
Importance of Water Harvesting
1. Water Conservation
2. Drought Mitigation
3. Groundwater Replenishment
4. Agricultural Sustainability
5. Urban Water Management
6. Cost Reduction
7. Improved Water Quality
Implementation Strategies
1. Household Level
2. Community-Level Water Harvesting
3. Government and Policy Initiatives
Water harvesting is a crucial technique for sustainable water management. Proper planning and
technology-driven interventions can make water harvesting an effective tool to combat water scarcity.

RAIN WATER HARVESTING METHODS, CLASSES, BENEFITS APPROACHES

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

Rainwater harvesting involves collecting and storing rainwater for later use, with methods
including rooftop collection and surface runoff capture, offering benefits like water conservation, reduced
water bills, and improved water quality.
Rainwater Harvesting Methods

1. Surface Runoff Harvesting: Collecting water from roads, open areas, and fields.
2. Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting: Directing roof runoff into storage tanks or recharge wells.
3. Check Dams and Weirs: Controlling water flow in small streams to increase infiltration.
4. Recharge Wells and Injection Wells: Enhancing groundwater levels by directing excess
rainwater underground.
5. Percolation Pits: Small pits filled with gravel to allow water infiltration.
6. Rain Gardens: Landscaping features designed to absorb rainwater and prevent surface runoff.
Methods of Rainwater Harvesting:
• Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting:
This involves collecting rainwater from rooftops using gutters and pipes, filtering the water, and storing
it in tanks for later use.
• Surface Runoff Harvesting:
This method focuses on capturing rainwater from surfaces like roads, driveways, and open areas,
collecting it in channels, trenches, or storage ponds for irrigation or groundwater recharge.
• Stormwater Harvesting:
This involves collecting rainwater from urban stormwater drains and using it for non-potable purposes
like irrigation, flushing toilets, or industrial processes.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

• Green Roofs:
These vegetative roofs absorb rainwater, reduce runoff, and provide insulation.
Classes of Rainwater Harvesting Systems:
• Direct Pumped: This system uses a pump to directly collect and store rainwater.
• Indirect Pumped: This system uses a pump to collect and store rainwater after it has been filtered.
• Indirect Gravity: This system uses gravity to collect and store rainwater after it has been filtered.
• In-situ Water Harvesting: Collecting and storing water at the point of rainfall.
• Ex-situ Water Harvesting: Capturing water from a distant catchment area and transporting it to
storage facilities.

Benefits of Rainwater Harvesting:

• Water Conservation: Reduces reliance on municipal water supplies and promotes sustainable
water management.
• Reduced Water Bills: Decreases the demand for water and lowers water consumption costs.
• Improved Water Quality: Harvesed rainwater is often free from chemicals, dissolved salts, and
minerals, making it a good source for landscape irrigation.
• Reduced Soil Erosion and Runoff: Helps control stormwater runoff, reduces flooding, and
minimizes soil erosion.
• Groundwater Recharge: Excess rainwater can be diverted to wells or recharge areas to replenish
groundwater resources.
• Cost-Effective: Rainwater harvesting systems are relatively simple, easy to install, and operate,
making them a cost-effective solution.
• Environmental Benefits: Reduces the need for imported water, promotes water and energy
conservation, and minimizes pollution of surface water.
• Reduces Dependence on Groundwater
• Improves Water Availability in Dry Seasons
• Minimizes Water Logging and Soil Erosion
• Enhances Groundwater Recharge
• Reduces Urban Flooding
• Cost-Effective and Sustainable Water Management

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

Approaches to Rainwater Harvesting

1. Household Level: Rooftop rainwater collection for domestic use.
2. Agricultural Level: Farm ponds, contour bunding, and irrigation techniques.
3. Urban Level: Stormwater management and groundwater recharge systems.
4. Industrial Level: Factories using harvested rainwater for cooling and processing.
5. Community-Based Initiatives: Government policies promoting large-scale rainwater harvesting
projects.
Rainwater harvesting is an effective method to conserve water and ensure long-term sustainability.
By implementing suitable harvesting techniques, individuals and communities can significantly
contribute to water conservation efforts and mitigate water scarcity challenges.

WHO CAN HARVEST RAINWATER AND WHERE?

1. People planning construction of house, modification of house existing house, etc.
2. From rooftops of Govt. building, Institutions, Hospitals, Hotels, shopping malls, etc.
3. Farmlands, Public Parks, Playgrounds, etc.
4. From rooftops and open areas
5. Paved and unpaved areas of a layout/city/town/village
Need for rainwater harvesting
Water harvesting is an activity of collection of rainwater and storing in containers for direct use or can be
recharged in to the ground.
1. As water is becoming scarce, it is the need of the day to attain self-sufficiency to fulfill the water
needs
2. As urban water supply system is under tremendous pressure for supplying water to ever increasing
population
3. Groundwater is getting depleted and polluted
4. Soil erosion resulting from the unchecked runoff
5. Health hazards due to consumption of polluted water

Rainwater harvesting is a simple, technically feasible and economically affordable option. Its
benefits to the individuals, institutions and the society are many.

1. Easing of the shortage of water by supplementing the current supply

2. Increase in groundwater levels
3. Cost-effective, as water pumping costs over long distances are not
Involved
4. Certain and preservation of lakes, ponds and tanks will have a positive
Impact on the urban environment
5. Reduce the run-off, which chokes the storm water drains
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

6. Flooding of roads and low-lying areas will be reduced

7. Soil erosion will be reduced.
Rainwater harvesting is a community-based programme and its success largely depends on the
collective participation of Government bodies, NGOs, Builders, architects, house owners and
individuals.

RAINWATER HARVESTING FOR DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS

Water requirement of a house can be broadly classified into
a). Drinking
b). Cooking
c). Bathing
d). Washing—Vehicles, Utensils, Clothes, Floor cleaning
e). Gardening
f). Flushing in toilets
First two uses require cleaner water. For washing, gardening and flushing toilets, relatively less clean
water can be used.
RWH can meet all these above needs with suitable RWH techniques.

ROOF TOP RAIN WATER HARVESTING

In Urban areas, buildings are usually constructed with rooftops of reinforced Cement Concrete
(RCC), Mangalore tiles, Asbestos/galvanized iron/ zinc sheets etc. Construction of buildings with
the above mentioned material requires roof top rainwater to be removed from building tops and
currently been let off into storm water drains outside the plot area.

The rooftops being built significantly with hard material, large quantities of rainwater runoff and loss due
to evaporation and percolation are very minimal. Thus rooftop rain water harvesting can be put to good
used by storing rooftop water on roof itself, ground level, below the ground, by using storage devices
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

like masonry tank/ Ferro cement tanks/plastic or metal containers.

Process of Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting
1.Collection (roof area calculation)
Roof can be broadly categorized into two types--- flat roofs n and sloping roofs. Flat roofs normally with
RCC have waterproofing on the surface as a surface finishing. This top surface is provided with slope
towards down water pipes. For efficient collection and effective usage, slope on the roof need to be given
towards the storage device placed for rwh. This will minimize pipe length to the storage system.
Sloping of roofs either with RCC, Mangalore tiles, asbestos sheets or steel carry water to the lower edge
of the roof. For RWH, a gutter made out of sheet metal or PVC has to be installed at the lower edge to
collect and channel water to the down water pipe.
ROOF AREA CALCULATION
Flat roofs, when made with reinforced cement concrete normally have waterproofing course on the
surface as a finish. The waterproof course is done with a small slope towards the down take pipes.
Usually practice is to use lime surkhi, in recent times a rich cement mortar is used, weatherproof
tiles are also laid on cement mortar. These types of roofs are ideal for rooftop RWH.
EFFECTIVE ROOF AREA FOR RWH(flat roof)
Calculation of effective roof area for flat roof
Divide the roof area into convenient grid and calculate the area of each grid
Example A1= X xY(where A1 is the area, X is the length and Y is the width of one portion of the roof)
Add the individual grid are to get the total roof area. I.e.
A1+A2+A3+A4+A5+A6+A7+A7+A8……A(Total area)
Effective roof area is excluding the peripheral wall thickness and any other opening
EFFECTIVE ROOF AREA FOR RWH (Sloping roof)
Calculation of effective roof area for sloped roof
Divide the roof area into convenient grid and calculate each grid area by taking projected length
and bredth. Actual surface area i.e. xX y is not considered for the calculation of roof are but the
projected areai.e.axy is considered
(A1) Area of one part of the roof=a x y
(A2) Area of other part of the roof=a x y
Total area=2 x a x y
CHANNELLING
Down water pipes made out of PVC, HDPE or cement pipes can be used for transporting rainwater
collected from roofs to the filtration system before storing. The size of the down take pipe varies
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

depending on the roof area, which is connected to the down pipe.

FILTRATION
Rainwater collected on the roof is very pure and clean. However, there are many substances, which get
mixed up with this pure on the roof (leaves, bird dropping, dust etc). These contaminants need to be
filtered before the rainwater is stored. There are many filtration systems.
a). Sand bed Filter
b). First flush
Sand bed filter: Sand bed filter is the traditional method where coarse riverbed sand, pebbles and
aggregates are filled as layers one above the other in a confined masonry structure. Rainwater is allowed
at the top from one end and filtered water is drawn from the other side.
First flush: It is a cylindrical plastic drum, pipe is inserted with slotted holes and at the end the end cap
is fitted, inside of this pipe a plastic ball is inserted. This plastic drum has a connection of one tap. During
monsoon this tap is closed when the rainwater get collected along with the dust the dust and water get
collected within the drum, its capacity is 25liters. As the water level increases within the drum, the plastic
ball will also rise upwards, hence the dirty water is get collected within the drum and crystal clear water
is tends to move into the rainwater tank.

STORAGE
Storage of harvested rainwater is possible at various levels
Combination of any of the above
In the first two methods, roof water is allowed to flow by gravity for secondary purposes like gardening,
vehicle washing, floor cleaning etc. In the other methods, water may have to be taken out manually or by
using small fractional horsepower electric pump.

The storage structures may vary from permanent masonry tanks, Ferro-cement tanks to plastic or metal
tanks. The capacity of storage device can decided by considering parameters such as roof area, water
usage and space availability.
Storage capacity
Water consumption in a house is throughout the year and water availability from rainfall is for a limited
period restricted to number of rainy days in a year. To make rainwater available in non rainy days, storage
device need to be designed with an optimum capacity to suit the need/requirement. In rainwater harvesting
system, storage device is the single most expensive component. Optimum size of the storage device and
cost effective methods to store water are the key issues for a viable rooftop RWH

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

Collection Surface
Larger the roof area available for rainwater collection, higher is the quantity of rainwater collected.
Cleaner and better the quality of rooftop, cleaner and better will be the rainwater collected. Maintenance
of the roof surface and keeping it clean has a direct bearing on the quality of water collected.

Usage pattern

Through the water requirement is throughout the year, the quantity of water required per day varies
significantly from household to household based on habits and also from season to season and time to
time. It is required to considerer an optimal usage pattern to design storage device of rainwater.

Rainfall pattern
In addition to total rainfall, pattern of distribution over the year determines the capacity of storage
container. Equitable distribution of rainfall requires smaller storage container and consequently lower
RWH cost.

ILLUSTRATIONS FOR RAINWATER HARVESTING AT RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

Case I: Keep a water storage tank or a structure below down water pipe, which carry rainwater from roof.
Guide the overflow of the tank to the drains on the road side/recharge ground water. Use the collected
water for gardening, vehicle, washing etc. When required. This water cannot be stored for many days
since organic matter coming from rainwater will start decaying in the storage tank and will contaminate
water.

CaseII: Rainwater flowing from the roof through down pipes has to be filtered for removing
organic/inorganic substances. This filtered water may be allowed to flow directly to a storage device kept
on the ground. The overflow of this tank may be connected to the drainage on the road side/recharge
ground water.
Steps involved
a). Connection from down water pipe to rainwater filter
b). Installation of first flush filter
c). Installation of storage tank
d). Piping connection from filter to the tank
e). Overflow of the tank to outside drain/ground water recharge

When it's useful

• In areas with inadequate groundwater supply

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

• In areas with limited surface water sources

• In remote hilly areas with high rainfall
• In some semi-arid areas in the plains

SUB SURFACE METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR GROUND WATER RECHARGE

GROUND WATER RECHARGE (Mostly Used in Rural Areas)

In rural areas, rain water harvesting is taken up considering watershed as a unit. Surface spreading
techniques are common since space for such systems is available in plenty and quantity of recharged water
is also large. Following techniques may be adopted to save water going waste through slopes, rivers,
rivulets and nalas.
Underground water is one of the important sources of water in urban areas> within increasing
urbanization, underground water has been indiscriminately exploited causing depletion in water table and
water availability. It is very evident from the number of failing bore wells/ open wells that it is
unsustainable to pump our water from wells without recharging the same from the rain water. To reverse
the trend or to reduce the effect of over exploitation, ground water recharge need to be taken up in large

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

scale at residential and institution buildings.

There are many methods of ground water recharge. Following are few methods for recharging ground
water using rainwater from rooftops of buildings.
1) Subsurface barriers/ dykes
2) Farm Ponding
3) Direct recharge through open wells and bore wells
4) Infiltration Gallery for large buildings
5) Roads/Trenches
6). Parks and open spaces
7). Layouts
1) Subsurface barriers/ dykes: Sub surface dyke or under-ground dam is a subsurface barrier across
stream which retards the base flow and stores water upstream below ground surface. By doing so, the
water levels in upstream part of ground water dam rises saturating otherwise dry part of aquifer.
• The site where sub-surface dyke is proposed should have shallow impervious layer with wide
valley and narrow out let.
• After selection of suitable site, a trench of 1-2 m wide is dug across the breadth of stream down to
impermeable bed. The trench may be filled with clay or brick/ concrete wall upto 0.5m below the
ground level.
• For ensuring total imperviousness, PVC sheets of 3000 PSI tearing strength at 400 to 600 gauge
or low-density polythene film of 200 gauges can also be used to cover the cut out dyke faces.
• Since the water is stored within the aquifer, submergence of land can be avoided and land above
the reservoir can be utilized even after the construction of the dam. No evaporation loss from the
reservoir and no siltation in the reservoir takes place. The potential disaster like collapse of the
dams can also be avoided.
• In rural areas, rain water harvesting is taken up considering watershed as a unit. Surface spreading
techniques are common since space for such systems is available in plenty and quantity of
recharged water is also large. Following techniques may be adopted to save water going waste
through slopes, rivers, rivulets and nalas.
• In urban areas, rain water available from roof tops of buildings, paved and unpaved areas goes
waste. This water can be recharged to aquifer and can be utilized gainfully at the time of need.
The rain water harvesting system needs to be designed in a way that it does not occupy large space
for collection and recharge system. A few techniques of roof top rain water harvesting in urban
areas are described below.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

2) Farm Ponding: Farm ponding, or the creation and management of farm ponds,
involves constructing small water bodies on agricultural land to store rainwater and surface runoff
for various uses, including irrigation, livestock watering, and aquaculture.
What are Farm Ponds?
• Farm ponds are essentially artificial reservoirs or tanks dug into the ground to collect and store
water.
• They are designed to capture rainwater and surface runoff, which can then be used for various
purposes.
• The stored water can be used for irrigation, providing water for livestock, supporting aquaculture
(fish farming), and even for domestic use.

Benefits of Farm Ponds:

• Water Conservation:
Farm ponds help conserve water by capturing and storing rainwater that would otherwise be lost to
runoff or evaporation.
• Irrigation:
The stored water can be used to irrigate crops, especially during dry periods or when rainfall is
unreliable.
• Livestock Watering:
Farm ponds provide a reliable source of water for livestock, particularly in areas with limited access
to water sources.
• Aquaculture:
Ponds can be used for fish farming, diversifying farm income and providing a source of protein.
• Groundwater Recharge:
Farm ponds can help recharge groundwater by allowing water to percolate into the soil.
• Soil and Moisture Conservation:
By storing water, farm ponds can help prevent soil erosion and maintain soil moisture levels.
• Multiple Cropping:
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

By providing a reliable water source, farm ponds can enable farmers to cultivate multiple crops
throughout the year.
Construction and Design:
• Farm ponds are typically constructed in low-lying areas or depressions on the farm.
• The soil excavated to create the pond can be used to form an embankment or bund around the
pond, which helps to retain the water.
• The pond should have an inlet to allow water to flow in and an outlet to discharge excess water
or allow controlled release.
• The pond's size and depth will depend on the specific needs of the farm, including the area to be
irrigated, the number of livestock, and the type of crops to be grown.
• Proper design and construction are crucial to ensure the pond's effectiveness and longevity.
Examples of Farm Pond Programs:
• Deshpande Foundation:
The Deshpande Foundation has implemented a successful farm pond program in India, helping
farmers in drought-prone areas increase their crop yields and incomes.
• India Water Portal:
The India Water Portal provides information and resources on farm pond construction and
management.
In summary, farm ponding is a valuable water management technique that can help farmers in many
ways, including increasing crop yields, providing water for livestock, supporting aquaculture, and
conserving water resources.
3) Direct recharge through open wells and bore wells
Rainwater from the roof may be allowed to flow through filter and recharge ground water from an existing
open well or a bore well. In case of an open well, filtered rainwater may be directly let into the well
through pipe from any one side of the well. Make sure the water pipe is slightly projected in to the well
and bend at the end of the pipe will guide the water downwards. This arrangement will avoid the water
flowing on the wall of the well and subsequent damage to the wall. During heavy rainfall water level in
the well raises and subsequently descends to maintain the ground water level. Wells can be built by
digging the ground to the required depth(15 to 30ft) and building the retaining wall around (Preferably
round) or by inserting cement rings to avoid caving in of the sidewall.

4) Infiltration Gallery for large buildings

It is advised not to allow the filtered rainwater from the filters into the bore well (live or failed). Fine silt
or dust from the roof may pass through the filter and block the micro pores or aquifers in the bore ell
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

causing permanent damage to the bore well. Rainwater from the filters may be allowed to stabilize in a
storage facility or an infiltration gallery specially designed to inject rainwater in to the bore well
infiltration gallery may be built next to the bore well, as explained in the section “Infiltration gallery for
large buildings”. The size of infiltration gallery can vary from 300 to 800cft, depending on the roof area.
A perforated pipe needs to be installed in the second layer from the bottom from one end to the other.
Farther end of the perforated pipe needs to be blocked with an end cap and the other end of the pipe is
inserted in to the bore well by drilling the casing pipe of the bore well to the outside diameter of the
perforated pipe. Make sure the perforated pipe is not projecting too much in to the borewell, which will
cause hindrance to install pump in to the bore well. At the same time if the pipe is not properly and firmly
fixed to the casing pipe chances of silt/sand or other material may get an entry in to the bore well. Size of
this pipe can be of 40mm dia having 6mm holes all along the bottom side of the pie. It is important to
have holes only at the bottom side of the pipe.
HOW DOES THE DIRECT INJECTION OF RAINWATER WORKS?
As the rainwater descends in the infiltration gallery, most of it gets into the subsoil and recharges ground
water. During heavy rainfall, rate of infiltration will be slower than the inflow of rainwater and the
rainwater starts accumulating in the gallery. As the level of water increases in the gallery and rises above
the perforated pipe level, clear and stabilized water enters the pipe from the small holes provided at the
bottom of the pipe to reach the bore well. In this process, fine silt, which escapes filters and sand bed at
the top of infiltration gallery, descends to the bottom of the infiltration gallery and settles down
permanently. Clear and safe rainwater recharge the bore wells aquifers to increase the yield and
availability. It is advised to consult a professional before attempting to inject rainwater into bore wells.

INFILTRATION GALLERY FOR LARGE BUILDINGS

Infiltration gallery is to store rainwater temporarily and allow the stored water to infiltrate into
underground aquifers. When the rainwater from the roof is allowed to flow on the ground infiltration is
less, causing more of runoff, thereby majority of rainwater quickly reaches drains or storm water drains
or streets and flows away from the building. The artificially increase infiltration, two parameters
important:

1). Increasing the surface area of the soil/earth in contact

2). Creating water head on the soil/earth
Increase in any of the above or both will influence greater infiltration of rainwater into ground. The level
of infiltration also depends on the structure of the soil.

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

HOW TO BUILD AN INFILTRATION GALLERY?

Identify an open area around the building, and excavate earth to the required size, the excavated pit can
be rectangular or circular in shape. To support better infiltration and for convenience of excavation, the
infiltration gallery can be of minimum 5ft and maximum 10ft depth and of similar width. Length of the
infiltration gallery can vary to accommodate runoff water from the roof during heavy intensity rains. The
excavated pit has to be filled layer by layer with material like pebbles, grave, sand etc. These layers of
different material will allow the rainwater to flow gently without much of turbulence and accommodate
storing of rainwater temporarily. The sand layer will arrest silt coming in along with rainwater. To have
a greater effect of the layers of different material, fill the second layer with 40mm aggregate to a depth of
one foot and the third layer with 20mm aggregate till 2ft. shot of ground level. Over the layer of the
aggregate, spread a sheet of plastic/netlon mesh. Fill the balance of the infiltration gallery with coarse
river sand. Build a boundary rim around the infiltration gallery with brick and cement masonry structure.
This will avoid flow of water from the surrounding along with other impurities directly entering into
infiltration gallery.

IMPORTANT
a). All the material used in infiltration gallery like aggregate and sand need
to be thoroughly washed to remove all silt and finer particles before
filling into the infiltration gallery.
b).Infiltration gallery created underground should not be lined with plastic or
brick and cement masonry or nay other material, which will block the
rainwater entering into underground aquifer.
c). The bottom of the infiltration gallery should not be lined or rammed to
create hard surface. All these attempts will block the rainwater entering
into underground aquifer.
RAINWATER HARVESTING FROM ROADS
In the recent past, rapid growth in the urban areas has led to asphalted roads and stone slabs or paves for
footpaths. This accounts for nearly 10% of the total area of Bangalore. Consequent to this, the rainwater
run-off has increased and ground water recharge has declined.

As the roads re built sloped towards the sides, rainwater falling on the road is guided to the side drains.
When it rains, water flows from the apex to the sides and collects in the sidewalk area and subsequently
flows to the storm water drains.
To increase ground water recharge by percolation and decrease the flooding of storm water drains, the

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

side could build an infiltration trench the drain all along the road, wherever possible. The infiltration
trench can be 2 feet wide and 2ft deep and filled with pebbles or aggregates with a top layer of coarse
river sand. As the rainwater from the road flows into the infiltration trench, water percolates into the
ground. During heavy rainfall, excess water spills over to the storm water drains. The infiltration trenches
store water temporarily during rainfall and later for infiltration. These infiltration trenches may be exposed
as walk ways or paved with inter locking pavers, specially designed with gaps in between for water to
flow into the infiltration trenches.
PARKS AND OPEN SPACES
Water harvesting methods in parks and open spaces involve micro-watershed management methods that
allow rainwater infiltration and percolation into the ground. The runoff has to be minimized by providing
adequate number of percolation pits and dispersion trenches.
In large parks, storage of rainwater in small ponds is also possible since the ponds can be integrated with
the landscape of the park. Mapping of the contours, planning for rainwater outflow in consonance with
natural drainage patters, identifying appropriate areas for percolation pits/dispersion trenches will require.

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore