COMPREHENSIVE LECTURE NOTE ON INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET

TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF INTERNET TECHNOLOGY

In the next few chapters, we shall talk about our first technological leap at the beginning of the

21st century: switched computer networks using communications over optical fiber and radio

links. The network is within 20 years to move packets through a non-transparent optical

network at 400 Gbps per light path and through a partially flexible optical network at Terabit

per light path. These capabilities seem sufficient to provide an Internet data rate of 100 Gbps per

home, 1 Tbps per home in 2030, and of the order of 10 Gbps per person. The predictions made

to reach two Tbps per light path in 2030 to support real-time videoconferencing remain intact,

now that we seem to need them to support the number of video channels that was highly

overestimated in the turn of the millennium debate.

The network could become a private fast train network that links the main cities in a light-path

grid-like pattern. Long intercity and overseas links could be connected in a hubbed fashion at the

regional level or bypassed, and we will see if we recover some of the main coaxial links that were

cut when the Internet bubble exploded. It is most likely that regional and long-haul light paths

will be built in cooperation with carriers who are willing to provide alternate light paths at the

wavelength level, once the flexible light paths have been built by pouring fibers over the roads

and the train tracks. The synchronous nature of the light paths will enable carriers to supply

quasi-stationary Internet timeframes of multiple Gbps to smart mobile terminals, and it is likely

that the same timeframes will be used by fixed terminals that will connect homes beyond the

reach of the optical fiber.

The Internet is perhaps the most visible aspect of the movement toward globalization. It

provides access to vast stores of knowledge and helps people from around the world

communicate with one another. In the early 1960s, research was initiated into techniques for

computer communications. The work emphasized improvements in the reliability of long-

distance communication lines that transmitted data. The key objective in this research was to

develop a reliable and flexible communications network. To provide for inspection of site

growth, the network design was recreated in detail. When problems were corrected in the initial

design and site implementation was verified, plans could proceed for the installation of the

actual growth network.

The development of the Internet followed on the heels of progress made in data networking and

message communication. There was a desire not only to link together research contractors, but

to provide a backbone for communication among all of the country's universities and research

centers. Local area networks were established using leased telephone lines and circuit-switched

modems. By 1984, agreements were made to adopt certain protocols. With the growth of this

network and the concurrent decline of commercial backbone support, a networking council was

formed. The council includes representatives from various government agencies. The Internet

represents a comprehensive foundation for payments to network service organizations. These

organizations, in turn, sponsor scholarly discussions and manage university network

headquarters that coordinate and facilitate high-volume applications data.

1.2 Basic Concepts and Terminologies

The network of networks all over the world is called the Internet. It is the largest and fastest-

growing computer networking system to date, connecting millions of host computers in more
than 100 countries and territories. The network technology, hardware, and software that have

evolved and grown to realize the Internet were developed in various efforts over several years.

An Internet user is able to access the Internet, communicate, and retrieve desired information

from any location. Today, the computer network technologies and databases developed for the

Internet are applied in many real-life applications. It is very easy to use the Internet. In general,

it needs a computer, a communication device such as a modem, and communication software.

The entire Internet provides millions of potential places for entertainment, getting information,

research, and education. Typically, people around the world can be brought together on the

Internet to exchange ideas and information.

There are a set of protocols and terms related to computer networks that must be well

understood in order to understand the attack overview. This section is an introduction to these

protocols and terms.

2.1. IP Address

Every host on a network has an address. On an internet, that host's address is called an IP

address. Every system on our internet (large or small) must have a unique address.

Each address consists of a 32-bit string, split into four 8-bit (1 byte) fields. Each field is a decimal

value in the range of 0-255. For example: 128.238.10.4. An IP address looks exactly like a large

street address.

Addresses are allocated by its domains. IP addresses are generally divided into three classes: A,

B, and C. The number of bits in a host is determined by the class of its IP address. Almost half of

the internet hosts use class C addressing. Someone may use three classes to obtain a host

address or else use Classless Inter-Domain Routing.

2.2. Ethernet Address

Each host is also identified with a hardware Ethernet address. On an Ethernet network, each

host has a 48-bit globally unique address.

2.3. Router

A router is an interface point between two or more networks. Routers decide what to do with

incoming packets based on the packets' addressing. Routers can also perform a variety of data

manipulation functions, such as fragmentation. Not every computer on a network can be

connected directly to the internet. There must be enough routers to process incoming requests.
2.4. IP

"IP" stands for Internet Protocol. It is a "connectionless" protocol (as opposed to being

"connection-oriented"), meaning that no appointed connection is established when transmitting

data. The IP protocol ensures that the data is delivered in full, the format is correct, and is

addressed properly. On the other hand, it fails to ensure that the data is handled by proper

hardware, is delivered in order, or in any guaranteed manner. The delivery of packets is left as

the responsibility of the lower-level protocols such as:

a) ARP handles the mapping of IP addresses to Ethernet hardware addresses.

b) RARP handles the mapping of Ethernet hardware addresses back to IP addresses.

c) ICMP is an IP support protocol used to handle error messages and keep connections alive.

Another important function of the IP is the use of the time-to-live (TTL) field. A packet traverses

one network to another (sub)network before it reaches the regional destination. The TTL field is

the means by which the IP protocol marks every packet with the amount of "hops" (network

traversals). If the number of hops exceeds the value, it will be dropped. This feature of IP is

added to ensure that no packet will endlessly loop on the internet. Plus, TTL serves as an option

for measuring and limiting a packet's "lifetime."

2.1 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

TCP/IP Protocol Suite: The Internet is the largest computer network industry today. People all

over the world are connected to the Internet and communicate with others, access remote

computer systems, obtain information, play online games, watch video clips, book tickets, etc.

The Internet is based on a general-purpose packet-switching network, called the IP network.

Many signals are used on the Internet. The connection of the Internet is made through such
signals. These include Ethernet, ATM, Frame Relay, and X.25. Different application layer

protocols are used for different purposes on the Internet, such as Telnet, FTP, SMTP, and POP3

for remote login, file transfer, and electronic mail. All these protocols support TCP on the

transport layer and IP at the network layer.

Each of the connection points on the Internet must have an IP address. The Internet address is

used to route message packets to each computer on the Internet. The address is a 32-bit binary

number, represented by a series of four decimal numbers separated by dots, such as 218.0.0.55.

The different signals used on the Internet have different layer structures. TCP and IP are used

over the Ethernet LAN. The IP layer takes the packet from the top, expands the IP address, swaps

the appropriate Frame Relay header and trailer information onto the packet, and adds it as the

Frame Relay information field. The ATM layer takes a frame from the top, adds an ATM header,

and passes the data cell to the ATM hardware. Finally, the ATM cell is sent through the ATM

network. At the receiving end, the information is transmitted in reverse order. All the protocols

of the Ping group are designed to support generic, datagram-style communication among the

Internet modules. In the hierarchy of the ICMP protocol group, it is logically layered on the IP

protocol.

2.2 HTTP and HTTPS Protocols

HTTP is the establishment upon which data communication in the World Wide Web is based.

This protocol depicts how data is transmitted between a web browser (client) and web servers,

and preconditions the client and server for the request for transmitted information as well as

the transmitted information itself. It is a communication protocol between client and server

operating on the topmost Application Layer of the Internet protocol family, defining what

message formats the server should deal with so that the client can timely finish specific requests
and receive requested information. If the web server defines and uses the number of this

protocol, HTTP's default number, in the course of port, all clients can initiate connection

requests to the HTTP server and then read and send information. Over the years, HTTP has

developed many variations, with the most well-known being HTTP/1.0, HTTP/1.1, and HTTP/2,

in addition to HTTPS, which is HTTP with SSL.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is a communication protocol that encrypts the

communication exchanged between the end-to-end client and web server so that requests,

response data, and webpages are encrypted and otherwise protected from secrecy or forgery. In

recent years, a shift has taken place from HTTP on the web to the secure HTTPS protocol, and

thus the HTTP/HTTPS communication can serve as the primary means of communication with

the web server. The HTTPS protocol, coupled with other guarantees, equips the client and server

with better end-to-end confidentiality and message verification protection.

Domain Name System (DNS) is the method by which domain name mapping is performed.

Through this, user-friendly domain names are mapped into a corresponding IP address.

Currently, the domain name space is a hierarchical tree based on the naming system. The root of

this tree is a unique universal root. However, many national top-level domain names are

currently using a country code associated with their country. The domain name in the same part

of the domain name system is uniquely created, which is reserved for IP addresses only within

the same part.

To create a domain name, there must be at least two properly deployed and set up domain

servers named at least one zone. The zone file for the domain can be stored in a zone file created

by the mini root server hosted at all times. The domain is registered by the registrar; more

specifically, several organizations are appointed to manage a certain upper domain name. After

having registered the domain name, a particular configuration must be done on the domain

name supply server. The DNS then processes the domain name and performs domain name

processing in the domain name resolution request to find the corresponding domain name

fulfillment server. Any type of domain name could host the service at that time. Domain name

resolution will find the domain name members that respond to the query and domain name

search mentoring on their own. Different types of domain names execute different types of

domain name services.

3.1 DNS Hierarchy and Components

"The Domain Name System (DNS) is a distributed database that handles domain name to IP

assignments and similar tasks. It provides the easiest way for a user to identify a server
extensively on the Internet without being concerned with the IP address of the server. The

process is similar to using a phone book in which a personal name is first found and then the

current home address and phone numbers are retrieved. The architecture of the DNS database is

hierarchically organized in a tree structure. The tree has a root that is represented by a dot.

There are at most 128 root servers available, and each root server represents a physical server.

Each server is represented by a server address published on the Internet. Responding to

requests, the root server gives a hint to the client about the local server that is next to the lower

level of the requesting domain. The client then addresses its request to the local server, which

resolves the client's request, being a subdomain of the local server's domain."

3.2 DNS Resolution Process

Whenever we desire to communicate with someone, we need to obtain their addresses before

we can directly communicate with that person. The same process also applies to communicating

with a particular web server to use its services. However, when we access these services through

the Internet, we tend to search for them using their domain names instead of their internet

addresses, as the actual internet address could change for various administrative reasons. Thus,

a unique process called domain name resolution is required to resolve the domain name into an

IP address by using the DNS server.

Both the host client and server possess a DNS resolver subsystem that is used to convert a

domain name into an internet address. Most default DNS resolvers only translate the domain

name to an IP address while the retrieval process of the domain name is carried out. If several

clients request the same domain name, then the IP address is retained using the cache memory

at the DNS resolver. The cache facilitates efficient IP address delegation and can prevent

additional burdens on the server. DNS resolvers oversee two types of queries: first, resolving the
domain name to an IP address in case the local cache has no clear answer to the client's query,

and second, furnishing the IP address of a DNS server that is used to resolve a subsequent name

resolution request. A server of the DNS request is fulfilled at the lowest DNS hierarchy. A DNS

resolver queries any of the covered DNS servers and then accumulates their replies. A response

is then provided for the subsequent non-recursive resolution process if it resolves the input

query. A server of non-recursive requests leaves the incomplete result to be completed by

another server.
CHAPTER 4: INTERNET INFRASTRUCTURE

The Internet has a hierarchical structure. Each country has its own national systems, and each

system is made up of a number of Autonomous Systems (AS), a set of routers, and links. Routers

are responsible for routing data from one AS to another based on destination IP address and

other routing information. Each unique AS interconnecting with other AS generates a unique AS

number. When a company needs an AS number, it applies for one from its national registry.

There are 13 core Domain Name System (DNS) root servers located at various regions around

the world. These servers form the backbone of the DNS hierarchy and are critical for IP name

resolution. If the DNS root servers are not available, Internet users cannot use names to

translate to IP addresses.

Within each country, the ISPs are interconnected through a number of core routers located at

strategic locations. At the national level, the ISPs collaborate and interconnect the backbone core

routers at telecommunications exchanges. Each public telecommunications exchange is usually a

skyscraper that houses not only the telecommunication switch but also the Internet core

routers. The core routers are shipped in steel containers. They are usually configured together

on arrival. Upon confirmation of successful configuration and testing, they are then packed and

shipped to the exchange. The steel container ensures that the routers are well secured. Upon

arrival at the exchange, the routers are unpacked and installed into the rack. The installed

routers are then connected to the pre-installed cabling. Such an arrangement means that

steering back to the exchange may be very complex. Consequently, exchange points may have at

least two of these core routers. The heart of the Internet lies completely within the packet

transmission domain. Packets are not buffered or redirected outside telecommunications

exchanges.
4.1 Network Topologies and Devices

Networks are found everywhere around us and are popularly referred to as the platform for the

cloud. The concept of a network is broadly termed as a place or a system of interconnected

people or things, and this can exist in different sizes and types in the context of computers and

other communication devices. A network enables nodes to exchange files, mail, chat groups, and

other things, and also share or distribute resources such as file servers, databases, printers, and

phone systems. There are different types of networks and the topologies that guide the

deployment.

A network is a group of two or more nodes connected by a medium or some technological

models for the exchange of information between these nodes. Networks are designed to match

user requirements and are highly customizable. Computer networks are classified based on

various factors such as systems design, network design, and geographical domain area. The list

of domain areas in the context of computer networks includes LAN, MAN, WAN, CAN, HAN, SAN,

PAN, and GAN. These domains are classified based on data range, device strength, and transfer

capabilities.

4.2 Internet Service Providers (ISPs)

Service providers control the user on-ramps to the Internet in free-market economies. They

provide virtual connectivity through a local access point. They compete to offer better, cheaper,

and faster access to the Internet. They provide digital on-ramps to the Information

Superhighway. There are four types of service providers in the economy: Commercial Service

Providers, Public Service Providers, Acted Service Providers, and Hybrid Service Providers.

Internet connectivity must be purchased by someone or an organization that needs it. The
purchase may be a physical lease of a communications line from the subscriber to the Internet or

a temporary lease for a telephone call charge, or a packet switch charge for packet traffic.

A traditional way of connecting a user to the Internet is linking the user’s terminal to a terminal

in a computer center of the service provider. One component of the telephone connection is a

terminal adapter or a modem. The telephone connection is then leased from the user’s terminal

to the computer center. Some leased lines may be obtained from the telephone company. Some

may be obtained from a specialized company called a common carrier or an Internet Service

Provider. The last hop of these leased lines of the carrier is with either an Acted Service Provider

or a Public Service Provider. These Public Service Providers provide access to individual phone

lines and local area networks of schools, police departments, emergency facilities, and other

public facilities. The Public Service Providers have large databases and research computers.

They also provide technical support for teachers and students as well. The ISPs have a terminal

adapter, modem, access lines, and a network server to handle user requests. They also have a

leased line from the network server to an Internet Point of Presence. The POP is a cabinet of

computer equipment hardware located in a major city. The last hop to connect to the POP is the

responsibility of an inter-exchange carrier.

There are Acted Service Providers, only handling subscriber access lines and user-to-ISP lines;

the last hop line to the POP is handled by the Public Service Providers. The Acted Service

Providers provide public access to the Internet for a monthly subscription fee, acting as an ISP,

providing a menu service and charging a usage fee per hour. They lease a telephone switch with

data ports built in to support the service. They have an access telephone number that is an

Automatic Number Identification known as the A/N number along with a network server. The

Public Service Provider has a data switch with a data port supporting the service. It has large
disk systems to support databases and research computer functions. The line speed between the

ISP and the POP is between 56 to 64 Kbps. There are also large broadband digital access lines.

These lines are expensive, and the ISP routers may be working at or near their full capacity. The

user traffic is multiplexed onto the large line by the Acted Service Provider’s router and is dialed

out onto this large line. The point to consider in Public Service Providers is that data traffic is on

voice-grade lines and that is on leased lines.

Web technology refers to the means by which computers communicate with each other using

markup languages and multimedia packages. It gives us a way to interact with hosted

information, like websites. This interaction has been the essential objective of the Web and

offers exceptional opportunities to influence progress in research, business, and several other

aspects of our lives. This portion of the lecture introduces the following aspects of the World

Wide Web.

5.1. HTML: HTML is a markup language used for creating web pages that are displayed in web

browsers. A markup language uses a set of tags to describe the text that it is processing. The

opening tag and closing tag surrounding the text usually indicate some notion of structural

organization. In these examples, the tags indicate the sectioning of the document into a heading

and a body. Not all tags in HTML are used to describe the document structure. Some tags

describe the document’s appearance. For example, this is in bold defines text that has a bold

appearance. Not all tags need to be closed—tags must be aware of block structures that contain

information. Character data that needs to be placed inside context elements can be placed

around enclosed elements.

5.1 HTML, CSS, and JavaScript

There are three core instrument sets for cyberspace: HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. The meanings of

these three are Hypertext Markup Language, Cascading Style Sheets, and JavaScript. JavaScript is

different in its nature in objective measures and in popular usage in that first, HTML often does

not contain JavaScript. It is either HTML only or HTML and JavaScript. Second, CSS affects only
HTML, but JavaScript can do much more beyond what CSS can do, and it can also affect other

components such as the server function that is not part of HTML.

We give a brief description of these components. HTML is a very detailed coding language that

describes the location and sizes of all the visual elements such as the webpage body,

backgrounds, and all the GUI items including text, buttons, clips, sliders, tables, audit tools,

rollovers, etc. When you see a picture on a webpage, it does not contain that imagery. It merely

describes how to display that image. To make the image display or to make it non-visual at times

and sometimes fit it into the proper place and size, HTML cooperates with CSS. CSS is a separate

file that contains solely the set of cosmetic descriptions of the webpage that HTML can refer to

and match with. If we know the path of the domain of any webpage, then, with reference to the

CSS, the positions of where all the visual elements are either positioned or hidden can refer to

where all the text and buttons can refer to.

5.2 Web Development Frameworks

Web development frameworks are a starting point for web-based projects. They provide

essential features of the website, like user interface, authentication, authorization, data access,

and many others. These features are arranged in such a way that in just a few common tasks, we

can have working software. Using a framework often saves both time and money in a project.

Some frameworks are geared towards automating as many tasks as possible, so that developers

do not have to know an awful lot about the framework to work with it. Some frameworks, on the

other hand, require developers to know a lot about them, but they are flexible enough to allow

them to work on an application with requirements that are very different from what the creators

of the framework intended. All libraries evolve or do not last long. As we shall see, this is not the
case with web development tools. The investment in them is huge, so that except for very

specific cases, they are larger than any other investment in a web project.

A web framework is a software tool designed to help coordinate and organize a software

application. Essentially, it is intended to allow developers to focus on building unique features of

their application. In practice, though, a framework usually has a history of having been used to

build successful applications in a specific domain. They often provide programming conventions

that are designed to simplify certain tasks, make code more readable or better structured, and

provide necessary software infrastructure. A web development framework also insulates the

developer from the plumbing work involved in web application development. Web frameworks

differ in the amount of assistance they provide, too. Some framework sites have detailed

requirements for users submitting patches. They need, for instance, to pass an extensive runtime

test suite, have the same indentation used in the rest of the code base, and where necessary,

comments. Some users really appreciate this discipline. Other frameworks have only a few

hundred lines of code and few, if any, requirements for submissions. Some frameworks include

all the components needed to build a web project. They typically have four layers: the

presentation layer, the business rules layer, the web request layer, and some broader services to

support interaction between these layers. These broader services often include model services,

which provide interfaces to business model objects, providing access to databases, and

administration services. Such additional features may also offer security and data

transformation services. Small, specific tasks done using such a framework may result in huge

and effective websites.

Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman proposed the Diffie-Hellman key exchange in 1976, one of

the first methods of exchanging encryption keys. It allows two parties to create a shared private

key based on their common shared secret, exchanged publicly. In cryptography, the Diffie-

Hellman key exchange is a key exchange protocol that allows two parties to generate a secret

key that can be used for secure communication. It is used in public privacy-retaining

cryptosystems to agree on a shared secret without having to transmit the secret itself. This

protocol dates back to the mid-1970s. The exchange of encryption, which was both a novel and

important result, greatly simplified the secure exchange of keys and opened the emergence of a

new field of cryptography that involves the use of number theory.

The problem was that two parties did not settle an agreement on the conditions of a shared key

if there was no secret communication between them. The key was generated in such a way that

an eavesdropper listening to the entire communication would not gain any significant advantage

by intercepting all the messages. This method of key sharing is considered secure in that

direction. The exchange could be performed over an insecure communication channel without

the key ever leaving the client and the server. The protocol allows for both secure and

authenticated communication between the parties.

6.1 Cryptography and Encryption

1. CRYPTOGRAPHY "Cryptography" is the science of information security in which techniques

can be used for secure communication. It also involves aspects of mathematical theories for

security, algorithmic principles, engineering principles, and real-world applications. While

cryptography is a complex subject, the primary protagonists are Alice and Bob, who alternatively
want to have secure transmission over an insecure channel. Another important class of

"cryptography" problems refers to those whose objectives are to protect data stored in

computers and other data storage media, in which security is the objective. Only systems

designed to meet a very rigid set of protection requirements should be trusted to protect

sensitive security-related data with total assurance.

2. CRYPTOLOGIC Cryptography presently studied around the world uses two perspectives:

information theory and computational security. The former is only possible in an ideal world

with no computational limitations, while the latter can study its context. In order to understand

computational objections, it is very helpful to study the concerns of the adversary. To talk about

the adversary in cryptography, it is often referred to by the less loaded term: "Cryptologic,"

which is a synonym. It is a technical term for the study of all aspects of secure communication

and data storage between isolated devices, how it has been created, judiciously used, and, when

proper, circumvented.

6.2 Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer Security (TLS)

SSL and its subsequent and newer version TLS provide privacy and data integrity between the

server and communicating applications via its underlying and widely used protocol TCP.

Websites with SSL are allowed to use the prefix HTTPS instead of the normal HTTP. Its

successor, the Transport Layer Security (TLS), aims at the same purposes as SSL did: encrypting

the commercially exchanged data between two communicating applications. SSL and TLS also

provide cryptographic protection of certificates and allow cross-certification for public key

infrastructures and digital signatures for e-commerce and business-to-business applications.

Users will find SSL and TLS very useful in the emerging areas known as secure email,

authentication protocols, and secure objects for better privacy and for the success of directory
services in the telecommunications industry. When using SSL or TLS, the contracting parties

simultaneously obtain mutual authentication and a shared secret that will be used for symmetric

data encryption and HMAC operations. This shared secret does not need to be shown publicly

and is never transmitted through an SSL/TLS session.

The SSL/TLS mechanisms derive from a complex interactive protocol phase that is run between

the client application and the server application. Each session does not need to use a new set of

long-term keys. The protocol must also allow for the future introduction of new transport

protection algorithms. As a basis of their service, the following algorithms are used: public key

authentication, secret exchange, digital signing, message block cryptogram, and message

integrity. The SSL/TLS uses a version field and negotiates higher versions than 3.0 to allow

reasonable enforcement. This document only addresses version 3.0. The party that requests a

secure communication session is referred to as the client and has the option of being anonymous

or authenticated to the server. The party serving the session is referred to as the server. The

optional portion of the server specifies the certificate type that allows the returned certificate

request message to be authenticated. The negotiation procedures cease and the protocol phase

is completed by the exchange of a message with security characteristics computed from

transmitted key agreement material. It indicates pending cipher suite selection option data on

session ID. The proposed TLS should be of general application and perform the capability to

provide improved quality of service and call control signaling, key management, and certificate

life cycle.
CHAPTER 7: INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT)

With advancements in nanotechnology, wireless communication, and micro-electromechanical

systems, the IoT world becomes close to reality. IoT connects smart technologies to realize

systems operated by humans. IoT provides new interactivity by connecting devices and sharing

data. IoT can offer a semi-autonomous solution to everyday requirements and optimization. In

these notes, further studies for IoT systems, wireless communication schematics, different

sensors, and some optimization for IoT application areas are explained.

The number of connections between smart sensor devices, objects, and the internet increases by

the day. The connection between smart things then turns into an enormous network. IoT is a

new connection model that allows objects with built-in technology to sense the environment and

communicate with other connected devices through the existing internet infrastructure. IoT is

used to assign IP addresses for each machine. The main goal of IoT is to collect and process real-

time data from these devices and to evaluate the parameters. This is followed by practicing

everyday tasks instantaneously and automatically by connecting to the internet where these

capabilities are used. Today, IoT is widespread and has a wide range of uses. Some examples

include intelligent televisions, intelligent cities, vending machines, and garment sensors in

hospital applications.

7.1 Overview of IoT

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a rapidly expanding global information and communication space.

There are billions of dedicated collaborative devices expected to be connected to the Internet in

the near future. These devices are of different types, like sensors, actuators, location tags, health

monitors, phones, etc., that are connected to the Internet, thereby enabling various applications
that incorporate some form of immediate knowledge of the physical things around us and/or the

creation of immediate actionable feedback through the control of physical devices and systems.

Some of the devices measure aspects of the physical world, and some of the devices actively

control these physical parameters. Therefore, by some accounts, the IoT is harvesting the world

around us and figuratively converting the IoT network into the 'nervous system' of the collective

entities or things constituting the physical world.

IoT hardware components usually interface with the real physical world to capture or control

physical parameters. Some of these components have electronic sensors or actuators and

require electrical connections to the edge devices. They can be wireless and need attached

controllers or transfers that provide secured interfaces to the network. These components

provide interfaces to the electronic nodes that run various applications by processing data

provided by the hardware.

The IoT network architecture consists of devices that connect to the Internet through wired or

wireless interfaces. The network components, links, and protocols that are used to connect these

devices to the Internet are described in the course. Some of these devices occupy the network

edge and contain the hardware and lower-level functionality to interface with embedded devices

capable of capturing or controlling physical parameters. Typically, these include time-series data

collection, image and audio acquisition, process control, and control loop management devices.

These devices are typically connected to an intermediate device such as a router, bridge, or

combo gateway via wired and wireless interfaces. The intermediate device acts as a transfer and

routing entity linking these devices to a wired or wireless network. These devices, collectively

known as edge devices, connect organizations and management entities to cyber-physical data

that is retrieved or controlled over the network within the IoT-enabled physical world.
7.2 IoT Applications and Challenges

IoT Applications There are many applications of IoT. Some of them are as follows: 1. IoT in

Medicine • Wearable health-related devices - Glucose level measuring - Heart rate measuring -

Blood pressure measurement • Monitoring patients' activities • Hospital management •

Monitoring elderly patients • Bluetooth-enabled insulin delivery system • Location monitoring

system for outdoor and indoor patients • Elder care system using wireless sensor network 2. IoT

in Home Automation Home automation is anything that gives you remote or automatic control of

things around the home. Home automation gives us the ability to control devices in our home

from a mobile phone or PC over the internet. Devices can be networked using wireless, wired, or

power line communication. With an IoT system, you get the ability to turn that system on and off

remotely. 3. IoT in Industrial Area The applications of sensors based on wireless and network-

based sensors in the industrial environment are probably the most critical area. Some

applications include instrument control, machine diagnostics and condition-based control,

temperature monitoring, and condition-driven operations. Other fields such as home automation

systems, environment monitoring, system health management, and building automation are also

growing rapidly with the help of wireless technologies and network connectivity. Challenges and

Strategies There are several challenges faced by the IoT to make the vision of applications a

reality. 1. Hardware and Energy: Low energy standards are a key issue of the deployment. Need

to integrate with standard platforms. It is important to efficiently manage power consumption.

We need ultra-low power components, energy harvesting, wireless power, and low-power

hardware-software development tools. 2. Middleware: A new type of middleware is required.

There are raising concerns about the communication bandwidth and security. The software is

important and needs the development of robust middleware to ensure safe and secure operation
through the use of security and safety checks. To address the first three challenges that we

outlined, there has been attention given to the paradigm shift from the device-centric IoT, which

is fundamentally limited to a local context, to the human-centric IoT. In many 'human-centric'

systems, there is an assumption of a single type of user, i.e., a human, but a new kind of (non-

human) user has recently emerged and become more prevalent. These 'users' are the devices

themselves and form a part of the IoT ecosystem. While these 'devices' are not human beings,

they are capable of user-like actions and interactions and want the same seamless and pervasive

connectivity as human users. The operating system that will be running the device will be a

special kind of OS, interacting with and acting as the surrogate for intelligent, application-

specific hardware.
CHAPTER 8: FUTURE TRENDS IN INTERNET TECHNOLOGY

8.1 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Internet Technology

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) have become integral components of

Internet technology, revolutionizing the way data is processed and analyzed to enhance user

experiences and optimize system performance. These technologies enable the analysis of vast

amounts of data in real-time, allowing for more personalized services and predictive analytics.

As a result, businesses can make informed decisions that improve efficiency and drive

innovation. This integration of AI and machine learning facilitates the analysis of vast amounts of

data, allowing organizations to anticipate market trends and customer needs more effectively.

This predictive capability enhances decision-making processes across various sectors,

promoting efficiency and innovation in service delivery. As a result, organizations leverage these

technologies to analyze vast amounts of data, uncover patterns, and make informed predictions

about future trends.

8.2 Quantum Internet and Beyond

The Quantum Internet represents a revolutionary advancement in communication technology,

leveraging the principles of quantum mechanics to create ultra-secure and high-speed data

transmission. This innovative approach aims to enhance the security of data transferred over

vast distances by utilizing quantum entanglement and superposition. In essence, the Quantum

Internet harnesses the unique properties of quantum particles to ensure that any attempt to

intercept or tamper with the data will be easily detectable, thereby safeguarding sensitive

information from potential threats. This feature of the Quantum Internet not only enhances

security but also paves the way for revolutionary applications in fields such as cryptography and

secure communications. Moreover, the Quantum Internet could potentially enable instantaneous
data transfer across vast distances, revolutionizing how we connect and share information

globally. This capability would not only enhance the efficiency of data transmission but also pave

the way for new applications in fields such as telecommunication, cryptography, and distributed

computing. As researchers continue to explore the implications of quantum mechanics in

networking, the potential for a more secure and faster internet becomes increasingly tangible.

The integration of quantum principles into internet architecture promises to revolutionize data

transmission, harnessing phenomena such as entanglement and superposition. This

advancement could lead to unprecedented levels of encryption, significantly enhancing privacy

and security for users worldwide. As quantum technologies continue to develop, researchers are

exploring how quantum principles can be harnessed to create a new infrastructure for the

internet, which could revolutionize data transmission and communication protocols.