Teaching and Learning Resources: Learning

Theories:Learning Theories
Learning theories provide a pedagogical/andragogical bas is for unders tanding how our s tudents learn. As McLeod notes ,
"Each theoretical pers pective offers benefits to des igners but the pers pectives mus t be taken into context depending upon
the s ituation, performance goal(s ), and learners . And s ince the context in which the learning takes place can be dynamic and
multi-dimens ional, s ome combination of the three learning theories and perhaps others s hould be cons idered and
incorporated into the ins tructional des ign proces s to provide optimal learning."

Learning Theory and Instructional Design/Technology

Created by: Gayla S. Keesee

Comparisons
Among
Behaviorism Cognitivism Constructivism
Learning
Theories
List of Key B.F. Skinner Jean Piaget John Dewey
Theorists Ivan Pavlov Robert Gagne Jerome Bruner
Edward Thorndike Lev Vygotsky Merrill
John B. Watson Lev Vygotsky
Seymour Papert
Role of · Learners are basically · Learners process, · Learning is an active process
Learners passive, just responding store, and retrieve in which learners construct new
to stimuli information for later use ideas or concepts based upon
—creating associations their current/past knowledge,
and creating a social interactions, and
knowledge set useful for motivation affect the
living. The learner uses construction.
the information
processing approach to
transfer and assimilate
new information.
Role of ·Instructor designs the · Instructor manages · Educators focus on making
Teachers learning environment. problem solving and connections between facts and
·Instructor shapes child’s structured search fostering new understanding in
behavior by positive/ activities, especially with students. Instructors tailor their
negative reinforcement group learning teaching strategies to student
·Teacher presents the strategies. responses and encourage
information and then · Instructor provides students to analyze, interpret,
students demonstrate opportunities for and predict information.
that they understand the students to connect new Teachers also rely heavily on
material. Students are information to schema. open-ended questions and
assessed primarily promote extensive dialogue
through tests. among students.
· Constructivism calls for the
elimination of a standardized
curriculum. Instead, it
promotes using curricula
customized to the students'
prior knowledge. Also, it
emphasizes hands-on problem
solving.
Behaviorism is a theory of
Key Concepts Behaviorism is a theory of Cognitivism focuses on Constructivism focuses on how
animal and human learning the “brain”. How humans learners construct their own
that only focuses on process and store meaning. They ask questions,
objectively observable information was very develop answers and interact
behaviors and discounts important in the process and interpret the environment.
mental activities. Behavior of learning. By doing these things, they
theorists define learning as · Schema - An internal incorporate new knowledge with
nothing more than the knowledge structure. prior knowledge to create new
acquisition of new behavior. New information is meanings.
compared to existing
Experiments by cognitive structures 1. Multiple perspectives and
behaviorists identify called "schema". representations of concepts
conditioning as a Schema may be and content are presented
universal learning process. combined, extended or and encouraged.
There are two different altered to accommodate 2. Goals and objectives are
types of conditioning, each new information. derived by the student or in
yielding a different · Three-Stage Information negotiation with the teacher
behavioral pattern: Processing Model - input or system.
1.Classic conditioning first enters a sensory 3. Teachers serve in the role of
occurs when a natural register, then is guides, monitors, coaches,
reflex responds to a processed in short-term tutors and facilitators.
stimulus. The most memory, and then is
popular example is 4. Activities, opportunities, tools
transferred to long-term and environments are
Pavlov's observation memory for storage and
that dogs salivate provided to encourage
retrieval. metacognition, self-analysis -
when they eat or even
o Sensory Register - regulation, -reflection & -
see food. Essentially,
receives input from awareness.
animals and people are
senses which lasts 5. The student plays a central
biologically "wired" so
from less than a role in mediating and
that a certain stimulus
second to four controlling learning.
will produce a specific
seconds and then
response. 6. Learning situations,
disappears through
2.Behavioral or environments, skills, content
decay or
operant and tasks are relevant,
replacement. Much of
conditioning occurs realistic, authentic and
the information never
when a response to a represent the natural
reaches short term
stimulus is reinforced. complexities of the 'real
memory but all
Basically, operant world'.
information is
conditioning is a simple 7. Primary sources of data are
monitored at some
feedback system: If a used in order to ensure
level and acted upon
reward or authenticity and real-world
if necessary.
reinforcement follows complexity.
o Short-Term
the response to a 8. Knowledge construction and
Memory (STM) -
stimulus, then the not reproduction is
sensory input that is
response becomes emphasized.
important or
more probable in the 9. This construction takes place
interesting is
future. For example, in individual contexts and
transferred from the
leading behaviorist B.F. through social negotiation,
sensory register to
Skinner used collaboration and experience.
the STM. Memory can
reinforcement 10. The learner's previous
be retained here for
techniques to teach knowledge constructions,
up to 20 seconds or
pigeons to dance and beliefs and attitudes are
more if rehearsed
bowl a ball in a mini- considered in the knowledge
repeatedly. Short-
alley. construction process.
term memory can
hold up to 7 plus or 11. Problem-solving, higher-
minus 2 items. STM order thinking skills and
 minus 2 items. STM
capacity can be deep understanding are
increased if material emphasized.
is chunked into 12. Errors provide the
meaningful parts. opportunity for insight into
o Long-Term students' previous
Memory and knowledge constructions.
Storage (LTM) - 13. Exploration is a favored
stores information approach in order to
from STM for long encourage students to seek
term use. Long-term knowledge independently
memory has and to manage the pursuit
unlimited capacity. of their goals.
Some materials are 14. Learners are provided with
"forced" into LTM by the opportunity for
rote memorization apprenticeship learning in
and over learning. which there is an increasing
Deeper levels of complexity of tasks, skills
processing such as and knowledge acquisition.
generating linkages 15. Knowledge complexity is
between old and new reflected in an emphasis on
information are much conceptual interrelatedness
better for successful and interdisciplinary
retention of material. learning.
· Meaningful Effects - 16. Collaborative and
Meaningful information cooperative learning are
is easier to learn and favored in order to expose
remember. If a learner the learner to alternative
links relatively viewpoints.
meaningless information 17. Scaffolding is facilitated to
with prior schema it will help students perform just
be easier to retain. beyond the limits of their
· Serial Position ability.
Effects - It is easier to 18. Assessment is authentic
remember items from and interwoven with
the beginning or end of teaching.
a list rather than those
in the middle of the list,
unless that item is
distinctly different.
· Practice Effects -
Practicing or rehearsing
improves retention
especially when it is
distributed practice. By
distributing practices the
learner associates the
material with many
different contexts rather
than the one context
afforded by mass
practice.
· Transfer Effects - The
effects of prior learning
on learning new tasks or
material.
 · Interference Effects -
Occurs when prior
learning interferes with
the learning of new
material.
· Organization Effects
- When a learner
categorizes input such
as a grocery list, it is
easier to remember.
· Levels of Processing
Effects - Words may be
processed at a low-level
sensory analysis of their
physical characteristics
to high-level semantic
analysis of their
meaning. The more
deeply a word is process
the easier it will be to
remember.
· State Dependent
Effects - If learning
takes place within a
certain context it will be
easier to remember
within that context
rather than in a new
context.
How Does Skinner Piaget Constructivism promotes a more
Learning Take · Known for operant · Human intelligence and open-ended learning experience
Place conditioning biological organisms where the methods and results
· A stimulus is provided function in similar ways. of learning are not easily
· A response is generated. They are both organized measured and may not be the
systems that constantly same for each learner.
· Consequence to the
response is present. interact with the
environment. Piaget
· Type of consequence is
present. · Knowledge is the · All knowledge is a human
interaction between the construction.
· Reinforcement is
individual and the · The learner starts with a blank
provided which could be
environment. slate.
positive or negative.
· Cognitive development · Not logical thinking.
is the growth of logical 1. Learning is an internal
thinking from infancy to process that occurs in the
Pavlov adulthood. mind of the individual.
· Known for classical
conditioning. 2. Cognitive conflict is
Vygotsky essential to the learning
· A spontaneous reaction Vygotsky’s components of process.
that occurs automatically Cognitive Development:
to a particular stimulus.
· Mastering symbols of Dewey
· To alter the “natural” the culture and
relationship between a · Education’s connection with
developing the cultural society, outside world, life.
stimulus and a reaction forms of reasoning.
was viewed as a major · What we learn should have
· Complex functions meaningful relevancy.
breakthrough in the study
begin as social
 begin as social
of behavior. · Instruction should center
interactions between
around the child’s experience
individuals; gradually
Thorndike acquire meaning and
· Thorndike concluded that are internalized by the Bruner
animals learn, solely, by learner. · Learner constructs new ideas
trial and error, or reward · Speech and other or concepts based upon their
and punishment. All symbols are first current/past knowledge
learning involves the mastered as a form of · Learning by discovery through
formation of connections, communication and developmental stages.
and connections are eventually structure · Benchmarks reveal each stage
strengthened according and manage a child’s of child’s development,
to the law of effect. thinking. interaction & discovery is
Intelligence is the ability learning.
· Zone of Proximal
to form connections and
Development focuses · Education relevant to
humans are the most
on interactive problem student’s need, stages in
evolved animal because
solving. cognitive development
they form more
connections then any
Merrill
other being.
· knowledge is constructed
The "law of effect"
from experience
stated that when a
connection between a · learning is a personal
stimulus and response is interpretation of the world
positively rewarded it will · learning is an active process
be strengthened and in which meaning is developed
when it is negatively on the basis of experience
rewarded it will be · conceptual growth comes
weakened. Thorndike from the negotiation of
later revised this "law" meaning, the sharing of
when he found that multiple perspectives and the
negative reward, changing of our internal
(punishment) did not representations through
necessarily weaken collaborative learning
bonds, and that some · learning should be situated
seemingly pleasurable in realistic settings; testing
consequences do not should be integrated with the
necessarily motivate task and not a separate
performance. activity
The "law of exercise"
held that the more an S- Vygotsky's theory presents
R (stimulus response) three principles:
bond is practiced the 1. Making meaning - the
stronger it will become. community places a central
As with the law of effect, role, and the people around
the law of exercise also the student greatly affect the
had to be updated when way he or she sees the world.
Thorndike found that
2. Tools for cognitive
practice without
development - the type and
feedback does not
quality of these tools (culture,
necessarily enhance
language, important adults to
performance.
the student) determine the
pattern and rate of
Looking more specifically at development.
academic learning, i.e. the
content of a lesson, rather
3. The Zone of Proximal
than managing the
than managing the
Development - problem
behavior within it,
solving skills of tasks can be
Thorndike's "Theory of
placed into three categories:
Transfer of Identical
Those performed
Elements" represents the
independently by the learner.
central behaviorist stance,
Those that cannot be
that the amount of learning
performed even with help.
that can be generalized
Those that fall between the
between a familiar situation
two extremes, the tasks that
and an unfamiliar one is
can be performed with help
determined by the number
from others.
of elements that the two
situations have in
Seymour Papert
common. He concluded
that education does not · Mathetics—the art of
generalize easily and that if learning.
it is to be preparation for · Guidelines for the art of
life beyond school, then it learning. First principle-Give
should be as life-like as yourself time. Second
possible (footnote 6). principle-discussion. Third
principle-look for connections.
Also Thorndike maintained · The building of knowledge is
that a skill should be the goal. Decrease amount
introduced when a learner of teaching and increase
is conscious of their need student projects.
for it as a means of
satisfying some useful
purpose. Regarding
material, Skinner specified
that to teach well, a
teacher must decide
exactly what it is they want
to teach - only then can
they present the right
material, know what
responses to look for and
hence when to give
reinforcement that usefully
shapes behavior.

He suggested 3 principles
which teachers should use
to promote effective
learning:
1) present the information
to be learned in small
behaviorally defined steps.
2) give rapid feedback to
pupils regarding the
accuracy of their learning
(learning being indicated by
overt pupil responses)
3) allow pupils to learn at
their own pace.
Building on these he
 proposed an alternative
teaching technique called
programmed
learning/instruction and
also a teaching machine
that could present
programmed material.

Watson
Watson believed that
humans are born with a few
reflexes and the emotional
reactions of love and rage.
All other behavior is
established through
stimulus-response
associations through
conditioning.

Relevance to · Identify possible Cognitivis ts believe learners As oppos ed to an objective approach

Educational reinforcers by observing develop learning through to learning, cons tructivis m is more
Technology behaviors of learners receiving, s toring and open-ended in expectation where the
retrieving information. With res ults and even the methods of
· Select Stimulus
this idea, it is important for learning thems elves are not eas ily
· Identify and describe the meas ured and may not be
ins tructional des igners to
terminal objective - thoroughly analyze and cons is tent with each learner.
observable behavior cons ider the appropriate
· By a process of shaping tas ks needed in order for · Case-Based Learning
and smaller steps learners to effectively and
· Authentic situations
achieve goals efficiently proces s the
· Multiple cases to build
· Mastery learning is an information received.
Likewis e, des igners mus t
cognitive flexibility
example of behavioral
cons ider the relevant learner · Social interactions,
approach
characteris tics that will collaborations
· Behaviorism still
promote or impede the · Assessment of activity
continues to play a large
cognitive proces s ing of · Shift teachers role to
role in motivation, information.
classroom management, scaffolding, modeling, coaching
and special education of learners
· Do task analysis and · Experiences are critical
needs
learner analysis · Shift from behavioral
· Create tests objectives to activity goals
· Create learning · Advance organizers
materials according to
any one of the
Instructional Design
Models
Possible · Instructional cues to · Explanations · Modeling
Learning elicit correct response · Demonstrations · Collaborative Learning
Activities · Practice paired with · Illustrative examples · Coaching
target stimuli · Gestalt Theory · Scaffolding
· Reinforcement for · Matched non-examples · Problem-Based Learning
correct responses · Corrective feedback · Authentic Learning
· Building fluency (get · Outlining · Anchored Instruction
responses closer and
· Mnemonics · Cognitive Flexibility Hypertexts
closer to correct
· Dual-Coding Theory · Object-based Learning
response)
· Chunking Information
 response)
· Chunking Information
· Multiple
opportunities/trials (Drill · Repetition
and practice) · Concept Mapping
· Discrimination (recalling · Advanced Organizers
facts) · Analogies
· Generalization (defining · Summaries
and illustrating concepts) · Keller's ARCS Model of
· Associations (applying Motivation
explanations) · Interactivity
· Chaining (automatically · Synthesis
performing a specified · Schema Theory
procedure) · Metaphor
· Generative Learning
· Organizational
strategies
· Elaboration Theory

Learning and One of the key areas where Computers process Ins tructional des ign cons iderations
Instructional behavioris m impacts information in a similar within a framework of cons tructivis m
Design ins tructional des ign is in the fashion to how cognitive begin with taking into account the
development of ins tructional scientists believe humans learner’s prior knowledge,
objectives . process information: unders tandings , and interes ts .

receive, store and

Computer-assisted retrieve. This analogy Constructivism is not compatible
instruction was very makes the possibility of with the present systems
much drill-and-practice - programming a computer approach to instructional design.
controlled by the program to "think" like a person
developer rather than the conceivable, i.e. artificial Jonassen points out that the
learner. Little branching of intelligence. Artificial difference between constructivist
instruction was intelligence involves the and objectivist, (behavioral and
implemented. computer working to cognitive), instructional design is
supply appropriate that objective design has a
The systems approach responses to student predetermined outcome and
developed out of the 1950s input from the computer's intervenes in the learning
and 1960s focus on data base. A trouble- process to map a predetermined
language laboratories, shooting programs are concept of reality into the
teaching machines, examples of these learner's mind, while
programmed instruction, programs. constructivism maintains that
multimedia presentations because learning outcomes are
and the use of the Implications not always predictable,
computer in instruction. When designing from a instruction should foster, not
Most systems approaches behaviorist/cognitivist control, learning. With this in
are similar to computer stance, the designer mind, Jonassen looks at the
flow charts with steps that analyzes the situation and commonalties among
the designer moves sets a goal. Individual constructivist approaches to
through during the tasks are broken down learning to suggest a "model" for
development of instruction. and learning objectives designing constructivist learning
are developed. Evaluation environments.
Implications consists of determining
When designing from a whether the criterion for One of the most useful tools for
behaviorist/cognitivist the objectives has been the constructivist designer is
stance, the designer met. In this approach the hypertext and hypermedia
analyzes the situation and designer decides what is because it allows for a branched
sets a goal. Individual tasks important for the learner design rather than a linear
 sets a goal. Individual tasks
are broken down and to know and attempts to format of instruction. Most
learning objectives are transfer that knowledge to literature on constructivist design
developed. Evaluation the learner. The learning suggests that learners should
consists of determining package is somewhat of a not simply be let loose in a
whether the criterion for closed system, since hypermedia or hypertext
the objectives has been although it may allow for environment, but that a mix of
met. In this approach the some branching and old and new (objective and
designer decides what is remediation, the learner is constructive) instruction/learning
important for the learner to still confined to the design be implemented.
know and attempts to designer's "world". Reigeluth and Chung suggest a
transfer that knowledge to prescriptive system which
the learner. The learning advocates increased learner
package is somewhat of a control. In this method, students
closed system, since have some background
although it may allow for knowledge and have been given
some branching and some instruction in developing
remediation, the learner is their own metacognitive
still confined to the strategies and have some way to
designer's "world". return along the path they have
taken, should they become
"lost".

To design from a constructivist

approach requires that the
designer produces a product that
is much more facilitative in
nature than prescriptive. The
content is not prespecified,
direction is determined by the
learner, and assessment is much
more subjective because it does
not depend on specific
quantitative criteria, but rather
the process and self-evaluation
of the learner. The standard
pencil-and-paper tests of
mastery learning are not used in
constructive design; instead,
evaluation is based on notes,
early drafts, final products, and
journals.
Strengths— The s trength of ins tructional Unlike behavioris m, which is Content can be pres ented from
related to ID des ign grounded in environment-focus ed, multiple pers pectives us ing cas e
behavioris m is that cognitivis m directs s tudies , learners can develop and
when there are s pecific goals ins tructional des igners to articulate new and individual
to be met, the learner is cons ider the learner as the repres entations of information, and
focus ed clearly focus of the des ign proces s . active knowledge cons truction is
upon achieving thos e goals promoted over pas s ive trans mis s ion
whenever there are cues to - The goal is to train of information.
prompt the learner’s
learners to do a task the
behavior. Because the learner is able to
same way to enable
consistency. Because interpret multiple realities, the
-Clearly stated objectives learners are trained to learner is better able to deal with
allow the learner to focus perform a function the real life situations. If learners can
on one goal. same way based on problem solve, they may better
-Cueing responses to specific cues, their apply their existing knowledge to
 specific cues, their
behavior allows the learner behavior will be consistent a novel situation.
to react in a predictable with others who are
way under certain trained in the same
conditions. In a stressful manner.
situation like combat or - The context of a learner -
flying a plane, cued their thoughts, beliefs and
responses can be a very values are influential in the
valuable tool. learning process.

Weaknesses Since behavioris m is s timulus A major weaknes s of Since cons tructivis m promotes
—related to – res pons e bas ed, cognitivis m lies in its individual learner interpretations and
ID ins tructional s trength. Whereas s chemas interes ts , this can pos e an
des ign is dependent on the help to make learning more ins tructional problem. There could
workplace or clas s room meaningful, a learner is potentially be problems in
having and maintaining markedly at a dis advantage adequately evaluating learning.
the appropriate s timuli to whenever relevant s chemas Learners may each have different
continue the intended or prerequis ite knowledge do experiences within the learning
behavior. Thus , if a certain not exis t. To account for this , proces s but each have valid and
incentive is not pres ent or an ins tructional des igner will s ufficient learning take place
does not occur, then the need to ens ure that the (McLeod, n.d.)
expected and des ired ins truction is appropriate for
performance may not take all s kill levels and In a situation where conformity is
place. Additionally, learning is experiences . Des igning s uch
essential divergent thinking and
a reactionary proces s to an ins truction could be cos tly
action may caus e problems .
environmental condition and and time-cons uming.
knowledge is cons idered
finite. One additional weaknes s of
cognitivis m is s imilar to
Skinner realized there is a behavioris m in the belief that
burden on the ins tructor to there are only finite,
maintain reinforcement. predetermined goals . Having
“Behavior that is not predetermined goals may be
reinforced is likely to in fact des irable for an
become les s frequent and organization s ince it offers
may even dis appear” clear direction and purpos e
(Merriam and Caffarella, but s uch a fixed s et of
1999, p. 252). expectations can limit the
potential of the learning.
Learners and ins tructors may
The learner might find
become
himself in a situation where
s atis fied with obtaining
he needs to respond, but
minimum competencies or
the mental "cues" he has
carry the attitude
learned to respond to that “if it’s not broke, then
might not exist. don’t fix it!” when the
learning experience
Behaviorism does not could actually be des igned
explain some learning-- better (McLeod, n.d.)
such as the recognition of
new language patterns by As with behaviorism, the
young children--for which learner knows a certain
there is no reinforcement way to do things based
mechanism. upon specific cues, but
that way may not always
be the best, most
efficient, or safest way to
do something in the
advent of different
environmental stresses or
scenarios.