Review

Advanced Algorithms in Battery Management Systems for

Electric Vehicles: A Comprehensive Review
Anith Khairunnisa Ghazali 1 , Nor Azlina Ab. Aziz 1, * and Mohd Khair Hassan 2

1 Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Multimedia University, Melaka 75450, Malaysia;

[email protected]
2 Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles (EV) are increasingly common on
roads today compared to a decade ago, driven by advancements in technology and a
growing focus on sustainable transportation. These vehicles are powered by rechargeable
lithium-ion batteries. A battery management system (BMS) is indispensable for ensuring
the optimal performance, safety, and longevity of the EV’s batteries. In this review, the
latest algorithm trends for BMS software are discussed. This work also focuses on several
key functionalities of BMS like the state of charge (SOC) estimation, state of health (SOH)
monitoring, state of energy (SOE), and state of power (SOP). Advanced algorithms for BMS
are comprehensively reviewed, including those designed for specific functionalities, as well
as those developed based on existing optimization, artificial intelligence, and estimation
algorithms. These algorithms address critical challenges such as maintaining symmetry
during charging and discharging, preventing thermal runaway, and managing battery
faults in EV systems. This work provides valuable insights for researchers and practitioners
in the field of EV design and development, particularly those focusing on the advancement
of BMS technologies.

Keywords: battery management system; electric vehicle; hybrid electric vehicle; lithium-ion
batteries
Academic Editor: Vasilis K.
Oikonomou

Received: 30 December 2024

Revised: 4 February 2025 1. Introduction
Accepted: 6 February 2025
In the past decade, electric and hybrid electric vehicles have gained popularity in the
Published: 21 February 2025
consumer market. Their reduced dependency on nonrenewable fossil fuel has demon-
Citation: Ghazali, A.K.; Aziz, N.A.A.;
strated their effectiveness in promoting environmentally friendly transportation systems.
Hassan, M.K. Advanced Algorithms in
However, electric vehicle (EV) technology is not a new technology. It has been around since
Battery Management Systems for
Electric Vehicles: A Comprehensive the 19th century. The first successful electric automobile was created in 1890 with a speed
Review. Symmetry 2025, 17, 321. of 14 miles per hour. Increasing interest in electric vehicles continued until the invention
https://doi.org/10.3390/ of motor vehicles that operate on gas and steam. These gas and steam powered vehicles
sym17030321 had more speed than electric cars, which became the primary reason for the decline in
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. interest in electric cars then [1]. Awareness of environmental impacts and the depletion
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. of fossil fuels have driven the automotive industry toward electric and hybrid vehicles in
This article is an open access article the modern era [2]. With advancements in technology, the performance of these vehicles is
distributed under the terms and
now on par with conventional vehicles powered by fossil fuels.
conditions of the Creative Commons
An EV is propelled by an electric motor compared to an internal combustion engine,
Attribution (CC BY) license
(https://creativecommons.org/ which derives its power from the combustion of a fuel-and-gas mixture. The most prevalent
licenses/by/4.0/). power source for EV is cells based on lithium chemistry [3]. The battery cell can be recharged

Symmetry 2025, 17, 321 https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17030321

Symmetry 2025, 17, 321 2 of 21

by plugging the electric vehicle into a power source. Batteries for EV are considerably
distinct from those found in consumer electronics such as laptops and cell phones. They
must manage high-power outputs, sometimes in hundreds of kilowatts, and store large
quantities of energy, up to tens of kilowatt-hours, while fitting within the space and weight
constraints of a vehicle and remaining cost-effective. The battery pack of an EV is used
to store the electrical energy used to power the vehicle’s motor. Extensive research and
substantial investments have been devoted to the worldwide development of advanced
battery technologies suitable for EVs [4].
Battery management system (BMS) measures and monitors the vehicle’s speed and
battery power consumption. BMS also monitors the battery’s state of change (SOC), state
of health (SOH), state of energy (SOE), state of power (SOP). temperature, overcharging,
and over-discharge. BMS sends a signal to the electronics control unit whenever the battery
is over discharged. This unit generates control signals for the converter and regulates the
motion speed. This procedure protects and lengthens the battery’s lifespan while enhancing
the performance and efficacy of electric vehicles [5]. BMS is very important system for EV.
Therefore, this work will focus on BMS and related works.
This review is presented in five sections. The next section will present the lithium-ion
battery, which is the most used battery for EV. This is followed by a detailed review on BMS.
In Section 4, the algorithms for BMS are studied. The paper is then concluded in Section 5.

2. Lithium-Ion Battery
Lithium-ion batteries are commonly used because of their benefits and outstanding
reliability. Lithium-ion batteries have a longer lifespan, high energy density, and a low rate
of self-discharge. It takes approximately 30 to 100 kilowatt-hours (kwh) of battery capacity
for an electric car to travel a certain distance [6].
A lithium-ion battery (LIB) comprises a cathode and anode divided by a porous sepa-
rator saturated with electrolytes. One of the most often utilized active positive electrode
materials for cathode in contemporary lithium-ion batteries is lithium ferrophosphate
(LiFePO4 /LFP). The LFP structure comprises densely packed oxygen atoms, with lithium
situated in octahedral gaps, while phosphorus establishes covalent connections with oxy-
gen, hence enhancing structural stability and battery performance. Currently, batteries
utilizing lithium iron phosphate (LFP) are acknowledged as one of the most efficient com-
mercial solutions for power [7]. This is attributable to the rapid diffusion rate of lithium
ions, stable cyclability resulting from the two-phase intercalation–deintercalation mecha-
nism within the LiFePO4 structure, minimal alterations in specific characteristics, as well as
high thermal resistance and environmental friendliness. Yet the primary drawbacks of LFP
batteries are their lower electronic and ionic conductivity, as well as their lower specific
characteristics [8].
Due to their high charge density and minimal weight, lithium-ion batteries have
proven to be the battery of choice for EV manufacturers. Additionally, lithium-ion batteries
have unique characteristics such as high energy density, low maintenance, cost, no sulfation,
lack of memory effect, no requirement for periodic deliberate full discharge, the ability
to accepting high charging and discharging rate, high depth of discharge, and their rate
of self-discharge is less than half that of NiCd and NiMh batteries [9]. To obtain the best
performance out of a battery pack, it is also necessary to entirely charge and discharge all
the cells simultaneously while maintaining the same voltage [2] and, to prevent damage
to the pack, the batteries must be strictly monitored for overcharge and discharge. Due to
the fact that the battery charge of an electric vehicle consists of numerous cells, each one
of which must be individually monitored to guarantee its safety and efficient operation,
Symmetry 2025, 17, 321 3 of 21

this process becomes more complex and requires a specialized dedicated system known as
the BMS.
The most typical main operational parameters recorded by BMS are voltage, current,
and the interior temperature of the battery during charging and discharging. BMS is
important in ensuring balance and symmetrical operation of the batteries. In the event that
any of the parameters reach levels that are greater than those that have been predetermined
by the safety zone, the system will transmit inputs to the protective devices, which will
then cause alarms to be generated and will disconnect the battery from either the load or
the charger [10].
A simulation study of a multi-chemistry battery management system to enable real-
time switching for enhanced operational efficiency has been conducted in [11]. The sug-
gested method seeks to enhance efficiency and performance by utilizing two batteries with
distinct characteristics. The predominant battery chemistry employed is lithium titanate
oxide (LTO) batteries, which may deliver elevated instantaneous power during periods
of high-power demand. The second battery chemistry is lithium-iron-phosphate (LFP)
batteries, which exhibit superior durability owing to their elevated energy density. This
technique is more economical than building a system with fast-switching circuit parts.
The multi-battery mechanism comprising LTO and LFP chemistries demonstrated supe-
rior performance compared to a battery pack utilizing only LFP chemistry with identical
specifications. The multi-chemistry BMS offers a substantial enhancement in performance
and efficiency.
Although power lithium-ion batteries are widely used, there are also numerous prob-
lems associated with their usage, such as overcharging and discharging leading to high
battery temperature and explosion, inconsistent battery pack problems leading to low
energy utilization, the battery cycle life being shortened, and the discharge performance
being degraded under high and low temperature conditions, etc. These factors highlight
the need for an efficient BMS, which has become an essential research direction in order to
solve the issues associated with lithium-ion batteries and enhance system safety [12].

3. Battery Management System

A BMS is a type of control system that is specifically intended for maintaining the
battery system [6] and assumes a critical role in monitoring and managing the well-being
and operational efficiency of battery packs. The system collects essential information such
as voltage, current, temperature, and coulomb counts in order to evaluate the real-time
state of the battery. BMS anticipates the number of cells taking into account factors like
temperature, voltage stability, current flow, etc., and guarantees that the batteries are
operating safely. Figure 1 below illustrates the overview of BMS.
Common functionalities of a battery management system (BMS) include SOC estimate,
SOH estimation, temperature measurement and estimation, cell balancing, fault detection
and diagnosis, and thermal management [13]. A BMS is comprised of a variety of actuators,
sensors, signal lines, and controllers. Through the examination of those data, the BMS is
able to make necessary adjustments to its operations, limit the flow of energy, and notify
users about any concerns. This proactive approach effectively mitigates safety risks and
prevents any potential harm or damage.
The BMS was created to detect and respond to inappropriate battery behavior or
readings. If the BMS detects irregularities, such as abnormal voltage or temperature levels,
it can detach the battery from the load or charger or safely shut down the battery. This
protection helps prevent further battery degradation and ensures the safety of the EV
and its occupants. Protection of the battery is a vital aspect of BMS for EV [14]. The
configuration of a battery pack for an EV depends on the desired output voltage, power,
 Symmetry 2025, 17, 321 4 of 21

and energy capacity. To meet these requirements, many cells are linked in series, parallel, or
a combination of both. The study of battery operation and its input-output characteristics
can be facilitated by the use of battery modeling. In order to get a well-designed BMS
that effectively controls and optimizes battery performance, it is imperative to utilize an
appropriate battery model [15]. Cell balance is yet another useful function provided by
BMS. Individual cells inside a battery pack do not operate simultaneously. Some cells may
Symmetry 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 22
be feeble, while others may be robust. The stability of the entire pack is impacted if one cell
fails [5].

Figure 1. BMS overview diagram.

Figure 1. BMS overview diagram.

For adaptation to scale through diverse applications, ranging from small to large
The BMS was created to detect and respond to inappropriate battery behavior or
configuration-12 V, 100 W, and so on, for portable applications and up to 400 V, 50 kW, and
readings. If the BMS detects irregularities, such as abnormal voltage or temperature levels,
even higher configuration electric vehicles-BMS, needs to be highly scalable. There are
it can detach the battery from the load or charger or safely shut down the battery. This
two basic types of BMS, namely centralized and decentralized, which provide a range of
protection helps prevent further battery degradation and ensures the safety of the EV and
options for system design to accommodate various application needs [16]. The centralized
its occupants. Protection of the battery is a vital aspect of BMS for EV [14]. The configura-
type monitors a series of connected battery cells to detect issues such as overcharging,
tion of a battery pack for an EV depends on the desired output voltage, power, and energy
over-discharge, and thermal runaway. Decentralized type delivers management circuits
capacity. To meet these requirements, many cells are linked in series, parallel, or a combi-
to each cell or a set of cells, allowing for greater control over the battery system in terms
nation of both. The study of battery operation and its input-output characteristics can be
of efficient energy management, fault handling, and special balancing procedures [17].
facilitated by the use of battery modeling. In order to get a well-designed BMS that effec-
Modular and decentralized BMS architectures can guarantee scalability more easily: since
tively controls and optimizes battery performance, it is imperative to utilize an appropri-
control is distributed to individual modules, management of large-sized batteries could
ate battery model [15]. Cell balance is yet another useful function provided by BMS. Indi-
also become correspondingly more efficient. For instance, ref. [12] presented the potential
vidual cells inside a battery pack do not operate simultaneously. Some cells may be feeble,
of digital twin-based designs in scalable BMS for effective monitoring and control of
while others may be robust. The stability of the entire pack is impacted if one cell fails [5].
large-capacity systems.
For adaptation to scale through diverse applications, ranging from small to large con-
Users frequently depend on the BMS to facilitate efficient charging and discharging
figuration-12 V, 100 W, and so on, for portable applications and up to 400 V, 50 kW, and
procedures, as well as to resolve issues such as incomplete charge or the necessity for
even higher configuration electric vehicles-BMS, needs to be highly scalable. There are
battery rebalancing. Existing systems monitored and identified the battery’s condition
two basic types of BMS, namely centralized and decentralized, which provide a range of
and alerted the driver via a battery indicator on the vehicle’s display [18]. The controller
options for system design to accommodate various application needs [16]. The centralized
circuit’s primary function is to estimate the SOC, SOH, SOE, and SOP of batteries via
type monitors a series of connected battery cells to detect issues such as overcharging,
progressive algorithms and analog signals [19]. This is illustrated in Figure 2.
over-discharge, and thermal runaway. Decentralized type delivers management circuits
to each cell or a set of cells, allowing for greater control over the battery system in terms
of efficient energy management, fault handling, and special balancing procedures [17].
Modular and decentralized BMS architectures can guarantee scalability more easily: since
control is distributed to individual modules, management of large-sized batteries could
also become correspondingly more efficient. For instance, ref. [12] presented the potential
of digital twin-based designs in scalable BMS for effective monitoring and control of large-
capacity systems.
 circuit’s primary function is to estimate the SOC, SOH, SOE, and SOP of batteries via pro-
Symmetry 2025, 17, 321 5 of 21
gressive algorithms and analog signals [19]. This is illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Battery management system.

3.1. State of Charge

Figure 2. Battery management system.
The state of charge of batteries in a BMS is comparable to the fuel indicator of a
3.1. State of Charge
conventional fuel automobile. The primary function of the SOC is to inform the driver of the
battery’s condition and prevent
The state of charge problems
of batteries such is
in a BMS ascomparable
overcharge and over-discharge
to the fuel indicator[20].
of aSOC
con-
estimation has automobile.
ventional fuel been a significant
The primaryconcernfunction
for all energy-storing
of the SOC is todevices.
inform SOC estimation
the driver of the
provides
battery’s information
condition andandprevent
precise estimates
problems of battery
such dependability
as overcharge and[21].
over-discharge [20].
SOCThe battery SOC
estimation is a statistic
has been that isconcern
a significant commonly for used to determine the
all energy-storing amount
devices. SOCof estima-
energy
left in a battery and gives the user an estimate of how long a
tion provides information and precise estimates of battery dependability [21]. battery will perform before it
has toThe
be recharged.
battery SOCPrecise batterythat
is a statistic estimation
is commonlyensures the to
used reliability
determineandthe
safety of electric
amount of en-
vehicle operation. The SOC of a battery is the ratio of the battery’s remaining
ergy left in a battery and gives the user an estimate of how long a battery will perform capacity to
its totalitcapacity
before has to be[22].
recharged. time t (SOC
SOC at Precise battery(t))estimation
is typically characterized
ensures as theand
the reliability ratiosafety
of a
battery’s current capacity (Q ( t ) ) to its nominal capacity (Qn), as shown
of electric vehicle operation. The SOC of a battery is the ratio of the battery’s remaining in Equation (1).
capacity to its total capacity [22]. SOC at time 𝑡 (𝑆𝑂𝐶 𝑡 ) is typically characterized as the
Q(t)
SOC
ratio of a battery’s current capacity (𝑄 𝑡 )(to
t) its
= nominal capacity (𝑄𝑛), as shown in Equa-
(1)
Qn
tion (1).
The manufacturer specifies the nominal𝑄capacity,𝑡 which represents the maximum
quantity of charge that can be stored 𝑆𝑂𝐶 𝑡 battery [23].
in the (1)
𝑄𝑛
The ofmanufacturer
3.2. State Health specifies the nominal capacity, which represents the maximum
quantity of charge that can be stored in the battery [23].
State of health assessment can be categorized into three classes; data-driven estima-
tion, model-based estimation, and direct calibration-based procedures. The data-driven
3.2. State of Health
methodology does not necessitate extensive understanding of interior chemical character-
istics State of health
and may assessment
effectively capturecanthe
beintricate
categorized into three
nonlinear classes; data-driven
interactions between SOH estima-
and
tion, model-based
measures. estimation,
The accuracy of the and direct calibration-based
estimation is reliant upon theprocedures. Thedata
quality of the data-driven
and the
methodology
efficacy does
of feature not necessitate
extraction. extensive
SOH with understanding
big data facilitates theofmonitoring
interior chemical character-
of utilized power
istics andand
batteries may effectively
aids captureof
in the disposal the intricate
electric carnonlinear interactions between
batteries post-scrapping. SOH and
The extensive
measures.
data The system
collecting accuracy of retain
will the estimation
substantialis reliant
volumes upon the quality
of data. of the
Filtering data and
effective datathe
is
efficacyforofassessing
crucial feature extraction. SOH with
SOH. Furthermore, the big
datadata facilitates
amassed by bigthedatamonitoring of utilized
platforms differ from
power
that batteries
obtained fromandlaboratory
aids in theresearch.
disposal During
of electric car batteries
actual post-scrapping.
vehicle operation, The exten-
the operational
sive data collecting
conditions system will
of power batteries willretain substantial
significantly volumes
fluctuate due toof variations
data. Filtering effective
in driver data
behavior
is crucial for assessing
and driving surroundings [24].SOH. Furthermore, the data amassed by big data platforms differ
fromThe that obtained
second from laboratory
type, called model-basedresearch. During
estimation, actual vehicle
is commonly operation,
utilized in BMS, whichthe
necessitates mathematical equations, empirical fits, or circuit parts to characterize the
dynamics and degradation mechanisms of batteries. With an increase in battery charging
and discharging times and the accumulation of time used, the battery’s health status pro-
Symmetry 2025, 17, 321 6 of 21

gressively deteriorates, its power and capacity demonstrate varying degrees of attenuation,
the battery’s capacity decreases, and its internal resistance rises. Consequently, capacity
and internal resistance are typically used to define SOH [25]. SOH is an indicator of dimin-
ished performance due to degeneration in lithium-ion batteries. SOH can be calculated
using Equation (2), where Cactual is the actual capacity of the battery and Cfresh is the rated
capacity listed on the manufacturer’s datasheet.

Cactual
SOH (t) = × 100, (2)
C f resh

According to [26], a battery is in a fault state when its SOH hits 80%, but ref. [27]
considered 100% to 90% of the rated capacity as normal, 90% to 80% as a warning, and less
than 80% as a defect.
The third category comprises direct calibration-based procedures and alternative fu-
sion techniques. The ampere-hour (Ah) integration method necessitates entire charging and
discharging cycles and is typically employed in offline contexts. The impedance spectrum-
based technique does not necessitate complex calculations and fittings yet demands precise
spectral excitation conditions [28]. The three categories of SOH methods are tabulated in
Table 1.

Table 1. SOH estimation categories.

Method Advantages Disadvantages

Data-driven estimation Needs large data training data Adaptive
Model-based estimation Needs accurate model High Accuracy
Direct calibration-based Demands precise spectral Necessitates complex
procedures excitation conditions calculations

3.3. State of Energy

SOE is defined as the ratio of the remaining energy in a battery under certain operating
conditions, including fluctuating load and temperature, to the total available energy of the
battery. The definition of SOE can be expressed by the following function [29].
Rt Rt
0 p(ξ )dξ 0 i (ξ )u(ξ )dξ
SOEt = SOE0 − = SOE0 − (3)
En En

where SOEt represents the SOE value at time t, SOE0 signifies the initial SOE value, En
symbolizes the total available energy of the battery, and p(ξ ), i(ξ ), u(ξ ) indicate the power,
current, and voltage at time (ξ ), respectively. Numerous methodologies for SOE estimate
have been developed. The power integral method was the most dominant technique among
them, as it allows for the direct measurement of battery usage energy [30].

3.4. State of Power

The SOP defines the maximum power that a battery may consistently provide or
absorb over a specified duration. The assessment of SOP is a crucial component of a
battery management system, as it enables electric vehicles to operate stably and reliably
within specified parameters. SOP indicates the battery’s capacity for quick charging or
discharging within its design parameters [31]. SOP estimate strategies can be categorized
into two groups: characteristic mapping (CM)-based methods and equivalent circuit model
(ECM)-based methods. The CM-based approaches utilize the established static interdepen-
dencies among battery power capacity, SOC, temperature, duration of the power pulse,
required power, and battery voltage. The ECM-based SOP estimate techniques have gained
prominence in the past decade owing to their capacity for an accurate representation of
Symmetry 2025, 17, 321 7 of 21

the battery’s internal dynamics, robustness, adaptability, and comparatively economy

processing requirements [32].

4. Algorithms for Efficient BMS

Many advanced algorithms have been introduced. Mainly the algorithms can be
divided into two categories, the first category is model-based approaches that include
physics-based, simulation-based, optimization-based, estimation-based and fault diag-
nostic, the second categories are artificial intelligence based. Additionally, IoT-based and
wireless technology had also been used for BMS.

4.1. Model-Based Approaches

Jeong et al. in their work [33] introduce a BMS algorithm that can identify and calculate
battery voltage, current, and temperature. A method for SOC estimate that integrates open-
circuit voltage (OCV) with the Coulomb counting method (CCM) is presented to address the
limitations of both OCV and CCM. This estimate approach necessitates minimal processing
resources and can enhance estimation precision. The suggested algorithm employs the
OCV equation, incorporating the internal resistance and efficiency of the battery. The
equation may compute the battery’s charge–discharge by precisely accounting for the
initial value of the CCM by the application of OCV, while taking into consideration the
battery’s state. Utilizing the battery efficiency formula, a predictive model for the SOH
of a battery, which is contingent upon the charging duration necessary for safe operation,
is integrated into the BMS algorithm to enhance reliability. During calculating a battery’s
efficiency, the charge–discharge current is measured to establish whether the ESS is in
the charge–discharge condition. Based on the findings, the suggested method is capable
of improving not only BMS performance but also battery safety by utilizing a problem
diagnosis algorithm with precise SOH calculation. The study does not comprehensively
compare with other parameter BMS algorithms nor evaluate its real-time efficacy.
Manas et al. [34] presented a centralized BMS for an evolving EV transportation system.
Through simulation, the suggested BMS architecture and test findings are verified. The
proposed BMS can control battery charge level, prevent overcharging and discharging, and
maintain temperature protection, according to benchmarked testing results for the voltage,
current, and temperature sensors. The benchmarked hardware and simulation results
show that the suggested congregated BMS architecture can control temperature, avoid
excessive charging or discharging, and maintain stability among the battery cells within
specific battery parts. It lacks a comprehensive assessment of its abilities and adaptability
in real-time applications.
Khalfi et al. [35] developed a model for a lithium-ion battery cell that takes consider-
ation of the dynamic behavior of the battery cell in different settings and driving styles
of electric vehicles on the highway, rural and urban roads. The model is composed of
a second-order Thevenin model with six parameters. This work used the Trust-Region-
Reflective and Levenberg–Marquardt algorithms in conjunction with a nonlinear least
squares approach to predict the parameters of battery cells. As a measure of model per-
formance, the mean square error (MSE) was used to validate the model; for the UDDS
drive cycle, it is 3.8260 × 104 , whereas for the LA-92 drive cycle, it is 6.2674 × 104 . The
Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm model is the best option because it takes fewer iterations
than the other model method. This research is deficient in a thorough investigation of the
model’s performance during extreme or prolonged usage situations, such as high-stress
driving or battery degradation.
Nivedita et al. [36] examined two distinct strategies for cooling cells, namely air cooling
and direct liquid cooling. The researchers proceeded to compare the outcomes of these
Symmetry 2025, 17, 321 8 of 21

procedures with the static cell temperature. In order to assess their efficacy, the effectiveness
of these methods was evaluated using a conventional large-capacity lithium-ion pouch
cell specifically designed for electric drive vehicles. This evaluation was conducted from
the standpoint of coolant parasitic power consumption, maximum temperature increase,
temperature differential within the cell, and the supplementary weight required for the
cooling system. The findings indicated that an air-cooling system exhibited higher energy
use in order to maintain an equivalent average temperature. The direct liquid cooling
system has the most minimal increase in maximum temperature. However, it does not
address cooling system reliability and maintainability, particularly coolant degradation
and system damage in real-world electric vehicles.
Kumar et al. [37] used SIMULINK to develop a cost-effective BMS that constructs
and simulates the circuit, ensuring optimal efficiency and security of the battery. The
circuit is designed to monitor the battery’s essential characteristics over a period of time,
hence enhancing battery longevity and facilitating more efficient battery utilization. Ac-
cording to the findings, it is possible to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
However, it lacks a comprehensive examination of the system’s performance in real-world
circumstances, specifically regarding its efficacy under diverse operating conditions.
Yan Ma et al. [38] suggested a hierarchical optimization technique for BTMS based
on ant colony optimization-fuzzy sliding mode control (ACO-FSMC) to maintain the
battery pack temperature at the target temperature and guarantee the cruising range of
EVs. The technique for hierarchical optimization is intended to achieve control over the
battery cooling rate in addition to the pump and compressor speeds. According to the
simulation findings, this strategy’s maximum temperature deviation and energy usage
were, respectively, 43.2% and 23.0% lower than fuzzy PID. Nevertheless, the computational
difficulty and feasibility of implementing the ACO-FSMC approach in real-time applications
were not considered.
Hamednia et al. [39], presented a proposal for enhancing the grid-to-meter energy
utilization of a battery electric vehicle through optimal battery thermal management (BTM),
charging, and eco-driving techniques. An optimization problem was formulated with the
objective of finding the optimal trade-off between trip time and charging cost. The problem
that has been formulated was subsequently converted into a hybrid dynamical system.
In this system, the dynamics in the driving and charging modes were represented using
distinct functions and involve separate state and control vectors. The suggested algorithm’s
performance was evaluated on a hilly road, with two charging options considered along the
driving path. Trip duration, including driving and charging times, decreased by 44% when
compared to a situation without active battery heating or cooling. Nevertheless, it did not
evaluate its scalability and adaptability over diverse real-world scenarios, encompassing
varying road conditions, extreme weather, and numerous vehicle models.
Zhu et al. [40] introduced current integration method with open-circuit voltage method
to calculate the average SOC. In this study, a BMS experimental platform was built that
supports three serially coupled 3400 mAh lithium cobalt oxide batteries. It features preci-
sion in voltage and current measurement, SOC calculation, balancing control, and Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD). The experimental results demonstrated that the cumulative error
after 80 min charging by employing the combined technique is 1.1%, which may be further
reduced to 0.6% with effective open-circuit voltage correction. Additionally, passive equi-
librium control (PEC) was practical due to the simplicity and inexpensive cost. The results
further demonstrated that PEC can serve successfully in strengthening the consistency of a
battery pack over time. The discussion lacks the scalability of the methodology to larger
battery packs and various operating and environmental circumstances, which are crucial
for broader applicability in real-world scenarios.
Symmetry 2025, 17, 321 9 of 21

Fault diagnostic algorithms are necessary for BMS. The primary function of these
algorithms is to identify defects at an early stage and promptly implement suitable control
measures for both the battery and the users. While operating a lithium-ion power battery,
there is a risk of fire, explosion, smoke, high-voltage electric shock, and other risks. These
hazards can occur due to numerous factors, including overcharge, overcurrent, and ex-
cessive temperature in the cell. These conditions can result in the formation of lithium
dendrites or excessive heat generation. This can lead to the puncturing or decomposi-
tion of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) film, triggering a chain of negative reactions,
ultimately resulting in a short circuit in the cell [41]. Xu et al. [42] developed a robust multi-
objective nonlinear fault detection observer for lithium-ion batteries that is able to handle
disturbances yet is very responsive to multiple faults in the battery. A comprehensive
three-step multi-fault detection technique was devised to identify many types of battery
defects, such as short-circuit faults, as well as faults in current and voltage sensors, using
adaptive thresholding. The effectiveness of the suggested approach was further confirmed
through multiple experimental case studies, which included various faults with different
levels of severity and incorrect state of charge initialization. This research lacked real-time
performance analysis at various driving cycle, which is crucial for dynamic BMS.
Si et al. [43] presented a work based on estimator algorithm the extended Kalman
filter-amp-time integration-open-circuit voltage method (EKF-Ah-OCV), which improves
the amp-time integration method and open-circuit voltage method primarily by utilizing
the correction properties of the Kalman filter algorithm. The accuracy of the voltage
method not only fixed the problem of the ampere-time integration method’s incorrect
SOC initial value estimate, but it also fixed the issue of SOC estimation mistakes that have
built up over time because of inaccurate long-term current measurement. The algorithm
demonstrated great performance in the complex environment as assessed by SOC and
was capable of fulfilling the power demands of lithium-ion batteries. The study does not
address the computationally intensive or scalable aspects, which may limit its applicability
for extensive, real-time applications in extensive BMS.
In addition to these models, filters can be incorporated to eliminate model uncertainties
and attain satisfactory estimation performance, such as the adaptive unscented Kalman
filter (AUKF) [44] and fuzzy robust two-stage unscented Kalman filter (FRTSUKF) [45].
However, both studies lack of real-time evidence to proof their efficiency.
Guo et al. [46] estimated the state of power (SOP) using a second-order partial-adaptive
fractional-order model (PA-FOM). An unscented Kalman filter (UKF)-based iterative ap-
proaching algorithm (IAA) was developed to determine the peak discharge/charge current
for online SOP estimation, avoiding model linearization in the prediction windows and
attaining high accuracy across the entire battery operating range. The validation results
indicated that the efficacy of online SOP estimation was drastically enhanced, achieving an
accuracy of superior to 0.6 W in MAE and 0.7 W in RMSE across two EV driving profiles.
However, it lacked comprehensive validation of the reliability of the batteries in relation to
long-term aging and degradation effects throughout prolonged operational periods.
Liu et al. [47] suggested an enhanced genetic particle filter (IGPF) to estimate the
SOP based on the estimated SOC. The constraints that account for the SOC, voltage, and
instruction manual were utilized to assess the discharging SOP and charging SOP. The
values of discharge SOP reduced gradually from a substantial value. The charging SOP
values progressively increased to a stable level. These evolving trends aligned with the
current circumstances, demonstrating the accuracy of the assessments. However, this
study does not examine it under extreme temperature conditions, high currents, and aged
batteries for the complete verification of its robustness.
Symmetry 2025, 17, 321 10 of 21

4.2. Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence techniques have been popular among the researchers of this
field. Dang et al. [48] proposed a class of differential equation-informed neural networks
(DENNs) for estimating battery SOC, including differential equation-informed multilayer
perception (DE-MLP), differential equation-informed recurrent neural network (DE-RNN),
and differential equation-informed long short-term memory (DE-LSTM). The suggested
approaches not only incorporate physical principles into data-driven methods for estimat-
ing SOC but also utilize DENNs to address an inverse problem by estimating the unknown
parameters of the differential equation and network parameters simultaneously. The pro-
posed approaches provide a viable option for precisely measuring SOC in batteries, which
is critical to maintaining battery dependability and longevity in a variety of applications,
including electric vehicles and renewable energy systems. However, this research does not
consider other factor such as thermal condition and SOH.
Zhang et al. [49] proposed temporal convolution networks for SOH predictions. The
results demonstrated the accuracy and dependability of the proposed method. The pro-
posed method outperformed traditional methods such as ampere-hour counting, which
usually suffers from accumulation of errors with extended use. The research also discusses
the uncertainty expression of the SOH evaluation and the use of sampling to determine
the prediction results’ confidence interval. However, the evaluation of SOH was based on
a specific dataset (NASA public data set), which may restrict the generalizability of the
results. It would be advantageous to validate the proposed method on a wider variety of
datasets in order to evaluate its robustness and applicability in various scenarios.
Dineva [50] conducted an extensive study of the effectiveness of advanced machine
learning techniques in predicting SOC with regression, specifically in the presence of
dynamic loads. The results validate the significant benefit of advanced ML models in
capturing crucial correlations among the variables of interest. The proposed method
is effective in forecasting state of charge in battery systems. This is because it has the
ability to store historical data and capture the cell dynamics, which is crucial for accurately
predicting future charge levels. In another research [51], the ML approach was used to
predict the remaining useful life (RUL) of lithium-ion batteries, which is critical for the
proper management and maintenance of electric vehicle (EV) battery systems. Several
models, including the regression model, the random forest regression model, the logistic
regression model, the random forest classification model, and the support vector machine
model, were compared to determine their accuracy. Despites the improvements, this paper
has a limited parameter for validation and required excessive data for training.
Venugopal [52] suggested using an independently recurrent neural network (IndRNN)
to estimate the SOH of lithium-ion batteries in EV. The goal of this study was to figure out
exactly how long the batteries have left and when they will fail so that they can be used
safely and reliably. The suggested method worked since the experimental results showed
that it has a lower mean square error rate than similar architectures for recurrent neural
networks. However, there is a dearth of discussion of potential difficulties or disadvantages
of applying the suggested IndRNN technique in actual situations. Another drawback is that
the suggested method was not compared to non-data-driven methods, like physics-based
models, which would have given a more complete picture of how effectively it worked.
Meanwhile, Wang et al. [53] also utilized machine learning techniques, specifically
long short-term memory (LSTM), to predict SOH. For this model training, 70% of the initial
data were allocated as the training set, while the remaining 30% were designated as the pre-
diction set. The neural network exhibited precise prediction outcomes as a consequence of
parameter tuning. The model demonstrated great predictive accuracy across several vehicle
types and different operational periods for individual vehicles. This demonstrated that the
Symmetry 2025, 17, 321 11 of 21

proposed methodology is capable of accurately evaluating the condition of health of power

batteries. However, the drawback is that it necessitates significant parameter adjustments,
considerable computational power, and specific knowledge for optimal functionality.
Kim et al. proposed a long short-term memory (LSTM) model to predict the SOC
of lithium-ion batteries in [54]. The purpose of the research is to precisely explain the
complex nonlinear behavior exhibited during the charging and discharging operations of
batteries to forecast the SOC. The LSTM model was trained utilizing battery data gathered
under diverse temperature and load situations. However, long-term battery aging was
not accounted for, as it impacts the accuracy of SOC predictions, particularly in advanced
machine learning models that using historical data. Similarly, the LSTM model was adopted
in forecasting the SOC of lithium-ion batteries to improve battery management systems’
performance in [55].
Thomas et al. [56] introduced LSTM, and artificial recurrent neural network (RNN)
architecture in machine learning, to estimate the expected lifespan of a battery. The various
machine learning models were trained and tested using the datasets from NASA. Estima-
tion of the battery life was conducted based on cell voltage, load voltage, temperature,
and charge and discharge cycles. The protection provided by the BMS circuit includes
overcharge, over-voltage, over-discharge, high or low temperatures, and cell imbalance at
charge and discharge. The compact design circuit has validated its functionality as batteries
have been charged successfully. The integration of machine learning for battery monitoring
has proved very efficient and effective in predicting the life span of a battery. However, this
method is suitable only for a battery pack containing a maximum of eight cells. If a battery
has more than eight cells, a greater number of Atmega microcontrollers are required.
Harippriya et al. [57] proposed a BMS designed to forecast the remaining battery
charge of the electric vehicle. The degradation of the lithium-ion battery in an electric
vehicle was estimated via several machine learning and deep learning algorithms. The
parameters, including voltage, current, and temperature, were collected from the sensors
and provided as a dataset to the LSTM, Decision Tree (DT), K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN),
Naïve Bayes (NB), and Support Vector Machine (SVM) algorithms. The experimental
findings demonstrate that the Naïve Bayes algorithm yielded the most favorable outcomes
for real-time data, as assessed by metrics including reliability, precision, recall, and F1-score.
Naïve Bayes achieved an accuracy rate of 88% and was utilized to determine the remaining
battery capacity, aiding in the prediction of lithium-ion battery aging. This research,
however, does not address the SOH of batteries including their thermal management.
Sunori et al. [58] developed the machine learning approaches of linear regression and
SVM, which are applied in MATLAB for SOC prediction. A secondary dataset comprising
voltage, current, temperature, and SOC important in the development of the predictive
models. 80% of this dataset has been allocated for training, while 20% has been desig-
nated for testing. The SVM model achieved an accuracy of 94.8%, whereas the Linear
Regression model demonstrated a superior accuracy of 98%. Despite the efficacy of the sug-
gested method, other critical characteristics must also be considered, as they significantly
impact SOC estimation. The research should address additional critical characteristics
that may significantly influence SOC estimation, including charge–discharge cycles and
internal resistance.
The study in [59] examined the utilization of hybrid reinforcement learning (RL)
models by integrating two advanced RL algorithms, namely deep Q-learning (DQL) and
active-critic learning, to enhance the charging and discharging operations of lithium-ion
batteries in electric vehicles. The hybrid models underwent extensive evaluation through
simulation and experimental validation, proving their ability to produce effective battery
management techniques. These solutions efficiently adapted for fluctuations in battery
Symmetry 2025, 17, 321 12 of 21

state of health (SOH) and state of charge (SOC) relative inaccuracy, reduced battery voltage
degradation, and complied with complex operational limitations, including charging and
discharging schedules. As a concrete step toward more dependable and sustainable electric
transportation networks, the findings demonstrated how RL-based hybrid models might
improve BMSs in EVs. The research did not consider the integration of the suggested hybrid
reinforcement learning models with the hardware and software frameworks of current
battery management systems, thus presenting an issue for practical implementation.
Li et al. [60] developed three models optimized with the particle swarm optimization
(PSO) algorithm: the long short-term memory (LSTM) network, convolutional neural
network (CNN), and support vector regression (SVR) for precise SOH estimation. The
PSO method was utilized to optimize model parameters, resulting in the development
of three predictive models: PSO-LSTM, PSO-CNN, and PSO-SVR. The findings indicated
that the optimized model markedly enhanced its predictive accuracy, with the RMSE and
MAE decreasing by more than 0.5%. Consequently, the minimal percentage reduction in
MAPE is 38%, with R2 above 0.8, thereby indicating robust fit capabilities and validating
the efficacy of the PSO approach. These experiments confirm the PSO-LSTM model as a
reliable benchmark for accurately estimating the state-of-health of lithium-ion batteries,
highlighting its significant applicability in practical scenarios. However, this research
should consider the effects of driving conditions such as acceleration, speed, and route
variation on battery health that may impact the accuracy of the SOH prediction.
Khawaja et al. [61] highlight the advancement of SOC and SOH prediction using di-
verse machine learning methodologies: linear regression analysis, random forest, gradient
boosting, light gradient boosting (LightGBM), extreme gradient boosting (XGB), and SVM
regressors. According to the findings of this research, the discharge prediction produced by
the random forest estimator exhibited a substantially superior performance with minimal
accuracy loss. For instance, with an optimal R2 -score of 0.999, the random forest regressor
exhibited mean absolute error, median absolute error, and RMSE values of 0.0035, 0.0013,
and 0.0097, respectively. Nonetheless, it is incomparable to other comprehensive meth-
ods, such as meta-heuristic algorithms like PSO, which may similarly require significant
processing power and complexity but potentially enhance the outcomes. Additionally,
several drive cycles must be conducted for the models to assess their resilience under real
situations. However, machine learning algorithms require large size training data with
tuning to achieve highly accurate results.
In [62], a machine learning algorithm, long short-term memory neural networks, was
utilized together with an estimator algorithm the unscented Kalman filter (UKF) for SOC
estimations under dynamic conditions and diverse scenarios. The results showed the good
potential of the suggested methodology in accurately estimating SOC in various battery
applications. However, this study only reported limited parameter for validation.
Lyu et al. [63] examined battery thermal management in advanced EV and propose
an advanced hybrid BTMS architecture. The battery thermal management system inte-
grates thermoelectric cooling, forced air cooling, and liquid cooling. The liquid coolant
indirectly interacts with the battery, serving as a medium for dissipating the heat produced
during operation. Forced air facilitates heat dissipation from the condenser side of the
thermoelectric liquid container. An electric vehicle battery system simulation has been
rigorously evaluated to determine its performance. According to experimental findings,
the cooling effect is promising, and the power dissipation is acceptable. Furthermore,
when 40 V is provided to the heater and 12 V to the thermoelectric cooler (TEC) module,
the battery surface temperature reduces roughly 43 ◦ C (from 55 ◦ C to 12 ◦ C) utilizing a
TEC-based water-cooling system for a single cell with copper holder. The research lacks
Symmetry 2025, 17, 321 13 of 21

an examination of the long-term durability and energy efficiency of the proposed hybrid
BTMS in real-world scenarios.
Harwardt et al. [64] proposed a Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) agent that is
trained using Reinforcement Learning (RL) to balance the SOC and temperature of Li-ion
battery cells equipped with an active BMS. The active BMS models and battery cell models
are coded in Python, together with the training environment for the agent. The efficacy
of BMS based on PPO agents as determined from hyperparameter optimization resulted
in a reduction in the range of balanced values by at least 28%, and in some instances, by
up to 72%. However, this study does not exhaustively show the model’s effectiveness
for a variety of real conditions, such as variable loading profiles, extreme temperature
changes, the influence of the kinds of aging in lithium-ion systems, thus limiting the
possible application.
Borah et al. [65] investigated the prediction of residual energy in a battery cell during
discharge throughout a broad range of current, from low to high C-rates. This research
presented a novel definition of remaining discharge energy and later conducted a systematic
approach that utilized machine learning for its prediction. A machine learning method was
proposed to forecast the residual discharge energy at various C-rates and predetermined
voltage and temperature cut-off limits. The experimental validation demonstrated that
the suggested method can forecast the remaining discharge energy with a relative error
of under 3% when the current fluctuates from 0 to 8 C for an NCA cell and 0 to 15 C for a
lithium-iron-phosphate (LFP) cell. However, combining machine learning with physics-
based modeling introduces additional computational complexity that could be challenging
to handle in practical applications.

4.3. Other Smart Technologies

Another category for BMS method is smart technologies. Internet of things (IoT) has
also been applied for BMS. Krishnakumar et al. [66] proposed BMS using IoT to control an
electric vehicle’s battery before it overheats due to continuous ON conditions. IoT-based
battery management ensures online battery performance and condition monitoring. If the
specified parameters fall within the acceptable range, the vehicle remains in a secure state.
If the range exceeds permitted limits, the battery and the vehicle may sustain damage. The
battery’s performance and voltage will be consistently monitored to prevent such situations.
The battery level is displayed to the user via the IoT-enabled mobile application, allowing
them to determine the remaining time till depletion. The integration of GPS allows the user
to identify the nearest recharging station and the distance. This solution will assist users
in avoiding hazardous situations and ensuring the safe functioning of the battery in an
electric car by preserving the performance and condition of the lithium-ion battery within
specified threshold values. Additionally, standardization of communication protocols and
interoperability standards could further accelerate the integration of scalable and adaptive
BMS designs on different EV platforms. The solution to these issues will be major enablers
that help in the wide-scale adoption of next-generation BMS technologies. However, this
method dependent on stable internet for connectivity.
Cao et al. [67] reported a wireless BMS (wBMS) that incorporates wireless communica-
tion technologies such as Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), Zigbee, Near-Field Communication
(NFC), Wi-Fi, and cellular networks. This method provides significantly increased flexibil-
ity in battery packing, eliminates wiring, decreases battery package weight and volume,
saves service and maintenance expenses, and improves reliability by lowering the risks of
connection failures in comparison to wired systems. Regardless its optimistic prospects,
wBMS encounters obstacles including data security, signal interference, regulatory and stan-
dardization hurdles, as well as competition from the ongoing development of wired BMS
Symmetry 2025, 17, 321 14 of 21

systems, hence diminishing the apparent benefits of wBMS. Despite their potential, signifi-
cant advancements must address the challenges associated with these technologies. Data
security is a significant concern, and the use of robust encryption and authentication tech-
niques is essential; blockchain appears to be a further solution for enhancing information
safety against cyber threats. Signal interference constitutes an additional challenge. It can
be enhanced by sophisticated algorithms for signal processing and improved shielding to
guarantee reliable transmission. The absence of standardization necessitates collaboration
among industry stakeholders and regulators, to develop universal standards for wireless
BMS, facilitating seamless interoperability and scalability across diverse applications [67].
The highlighted research papers collectively contribute to advancing BMS for electric
vehicles, offering diverse methodologies and applications. The contributions of papers in
the field of BMS for electric vehicles are noteworthy. They focus, respectively, on enhancing
BMS performance through accurate SOH computation, developing cost-effective BMS with
circuit simulation for longevity and efficiency, proposing a centralized BMS architecture
for evolving EV systems, introducing an advanced SOC estimation, suggesting a battery
thermal management system (BTMS), and presenting an IoT-based BMS for real-time
monitoring, contributing to enhanced safety and awareness. From the reviewed works,
it can be observed that machine learning, optimization, and estimation algorithms are
important in BMS. The algorithms are used to ensure that the battery is operated optimally
or in prediction of the battery performance. The works reviewed above are tabulated in
Table 2, highlighting the algorithms used and the main issue solved by the algorithm.

Table 2. Advanced algorithms for BMS.

Ref Algorithm Advantages Limitations

Model-based
Identify and calculate battery
Lacks comparison with other BMS
[33] OCV with CCM voltage, current, and temperature
parameters
Enhance estimation precision
Control battery charge level,
Lacks detailed evaluation of
prevent overcharging and
[34] Simulation centralized BMS robustness and real-world
discharging, and maintain
conditions
temperature protection
Estimating the parameters of the
Trust-Region-Reflective and Lacks evaluation under extreme or
[35] lithium-ion battery cell in different
Levenberg–Marquardt long-term condition
settings and driving styles
Lack of long-time reliability
To study the development of a
[36] Two cell-cooling methods validation and maintenance
cost-effective cooling system
requirements
lacks a comprehensive examination
Optimal efficiency and security of
[37] SIMULINK circuit design of the system’s performance in
the battery
real-world circumstances
Does not include the computational
ACO-FSMC To maintain the battery pack difficulty and feasibility of
[38]
(optimization algorithm) temperature implementing the ACO-FSMC
approach in real-time applications
[39] Optimal BTM Enhancing the grid-to-meter energy Limited driving condition
Lacks the scalability of the
Current integration method with methodology to larger battery
[40] To calculate the average SOC
open-circuit voltage packs and various operating and
limited focus on battery type
Symmetry 2025, 17, 321 15 of 21

Table 2. Cont.

Ref Algorithm Advantages Limitations

Multi-objective nonlinear fault
[42] To identify battery defects Limited driving cycle
detection observer
EKF-Ah-OCV (estimator Does not address the
[43] SOC estimation
algorithm) computationally intensive
uncertainty and state of charge
[44] AUKF, AEKF Lack of real-time validation
estimation of lithium-ion batteries
[45] AUKF SOC estimation Lack of real-time validation
Lack of validation for long-term
[46] PA-FOM and UKF SOP estimation
operation
Lack of various extreme testing
[47] IGPP SOP estimation based on SOC
conditions
AI based
Precisely estimating SOC in
[48] DENNs SOC estimation
batteries Complex model
[49] Temporal convolution networks Predict SOH Limited dataset for validation
LSTM, Prophet, Random Forest,
[50] Forecasting state of charge Limited parameter consideration
Auto ARIMA
Linear regression, logistic
regression, random forest Require substantial amounts of
[51] To predict the remaining useful life
regression and classification, labeled data
support vector machine
The suggested method was not
[52] IndRNN SOH estimation compared to non-data-driven
methods
[53] LSTM To predict SOH Relies on parameter tuning
Long-term battery aging not
[54] LSTM SOC prediction
considered
Only suitable for a battery pack
LSTM to estimate the expected lifespan of
[56] containing a maximum of eight
RNN a battery
cells
The degradation of the lithium-ion
LSTM, Decision Tree (DT),
battery in an electric vehicle will be Does not address the SOH of
K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN),
[57] estimated via several machine batteries including their thermal
Naïve Bayes (NB), and Support
learning and deep learning management
Vector Machine (SVM)
algorithms
ML for SOC prediction and
[58] Linear Regression, and SVM Limited parameter validation
exhibited excellent performance
Does not consider hardware and
deep Q-learning (DQL) and
[59] hybrid reinforcement learning software frameworks for the
active-critic learning
proposed model
Indicating robust fitting capabilities
Does not consider the effects of
[60] PSO-LSTM, PSO-CNN, PSO-SVR and affirming the efficacy of the
driving conditions
PSO technique
Symmetry 2025, 17, 321 16 of 21

Table 2. Cont.

Ref Algorithm Advantages Limitations

linear regression analysis,
random forest, gradient boosting,
light gradient boosting Require large size training data to
[61] SOC and SOH prediction
(LightGBM), extreme gradient achieve accuracy
boosting (XGB), and SVM
regressors
LSTM
[62] Accurately estimating SOC Limited parameter for validation
UKF
Advanced hybrid BTMS To study thermal management of Lack of analysis for long-term
[63]
architecture batteries durability
Proximal Policy Optimization To balance the SOC and
[64] Limited validation
(PPO) temperature
Prediction of residual energy of
The computational complexity
battery cell during discharge
[65] NDCTNet might cause difficulty with
throughout a broad range of
handling
current
Other smart technologies
To control an electric vehicle’s Dependency on network
[66] IoT: ThingSpeak
battery before it overheats connectivity
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), decreases battery package weight Encounters obstacles including
Zigbee, Near-Field and volume, saves service and data security, signal interference,
[67]
Communication (NFC), Wi-Fi, maintenance expenses, and regulatory and standardization
and cellular networks improves reliability hurdles

4.4. Challenges and Limitations

Conventional BMS methodologies have primarily concentrated on static algorithms
that monitor and control battery parameters according to established models. These
techniques, however, are insufficient considering the nonlinear behavior of batteries under
fluctuating load circumstances and environmental factors, resulting in poor reliability and
diminished battery longevity [68]. Despite technological developments, the integration
of multiple computational approaches into a unified BMS framework continues to pose a
significant difficulty and constraining potential advantages such as prolonged battery life,
enhanced safety, and augmented energy economy.
According to [69], there are three main areas where lithium-ion battery management
presents technical issues and challenges. First is the complex and nonlinear electro-thermal
behaviour of lithium-ion batteries, thus complicating the modelling process. Second is
the inability of sensors to directly assess the internal states of lithium-ion batteries and
their high susceptibility to noise and ambient temperature. This makes it challenging to
obtain a precise battery estimate. The last issue is the complicated structure when groups
of lithium-ion batteries are used, which makes it hard to control precisely.
Moreover, because the work in [69] highlighted the inability to capture all the complexi-
ties in real life, inaccuracies might arise in performance predictions. Furthermore, hardware
configurations and the settings of parameters can reduce their general applicability to only
a few environments.
Real-time validation is one of the major challenges for BMS development. It enables
effective and dependable BMS by evaluating algorithms under dynamic, real-world sit-
uations. The system’s performance is be evaluated for coverage across many scenarios,
encompassing driving behaviors and environmental conditions, hence enhancing robust-
Symmetry 2025, 17, 321 17 of 21

ness and precision. A decentralized yet synchronized real-world system for intelligent
battery management was developed in [70] with a universal controller with cloud com-
puting functionality, four charge regulators, and a collection of sensor-equipped battery
monitors featuring networking and Bluetooth capabilities. The results demonstrated the
effective performance of the decentralized BMS system in maintaining threshold values
indicated in the SOC graphs under appropriate conditions, hence preventing both overload
and a decline below 80%. Regardless, substantial obstacles exist in obtaining accurate
measurements, especially with state of health (SOH) assessments. These limit the proper
improvement of precise predictive diagnostics for accurate remaining useful life (RUL)
estimation of batteries.
Real-time analysis technologies for BMS like long range (LoRa) have made significant
progress [71], but there are still problems with creating accurate real-time estimations. As a
result, the majority of these solutions fail to account for all the complexities that arise in
real life, which leaves room for model prediction errors. Their effectiveness are limited and
their dependability for real-time application greatly impacted by differences in hardware
configurations and parameter settings across various situations. Resolving the issues is
essential to maximizing LoRa’s potential for enabling long-range, low-cost, and low-power
remote battery monitoring.
Reliability and scalability can be improved by applying effective control strategies
utilized in shipboard microgrids for battery management systems. Secondary distributed
control methods, demonstrated in isolated shipboard microgrids, are crucial for addressing
issues related to voltage and frequency fluctuations, accurate power distribution, and
maintaining system stability in dynamic environments [72].

5. Conclusions
Integration of dynamic battery behavior modeling with BMS is a complicated task that
requires many computer resources and may involve making changes in real time, which
could make it hard to implement. Furthermore, the effort to develop robust and adaptive
optimization algorithms for a wide range of electric vehicle types and driving conditions
is not straightforward. This work necessitates the consideration of varied user behaviors,
traffic patterns, and environmental considerations. Furthermore, it is imperative to broaden
the scope of safety mechanisms and reliability assessments beyond laboratory-based tests
in order to incorporate real-world situations. This necessitates the implementation of
comprehensive testing and validation procedures. The examination of the environmental
consequences, grid interactions, and user behavior requires the involvement of multiple
disciplines and the careful consideration of regulatory and infrastructure constraints.
Despite the advancements of BMS, critical research gaps are evident. While the studies
address monitoring, basic control, and specific functionalities, there is a clear need for
in-depth exploration of advanced control strategies. The papers lack extensive discussion
on integrating machine learning algorithms within BMS frameworks, leaving untapped
potential for predictive analytics, fault detection, and adaptive control. Notably absent
are discussions on cybersecurity considerations, scalability challenges, and real-world
implementation issues. The lack of attention to interoperability standards and energy-
efficient cooling strategies further underscores areas requiring research. Addressing these
gaps is crucial for developing more robust, adaptive, and widely applicable BMS, ensuring
the continued advancement and widespread adoption of electric vehicles.
BMSs, identical to other components of EVs, are continuously enhanced to align with
the latest developments in the industry. Engineers globally are actively developing various
components and functions of BMS. Three primary research directions can be identified:
Symmetry 2025, 17, 321 18 of 21

enhancing electric vehicle adoption, integrating with renewable energy resources, and
addressing cybersecurity.
Future study might explore more algorithms and compare them, including those not
reported in this paper, to tackle the problems of EV BMS. The development of advanced
algorithms can enhance real-time state estimation, thermal management, and energy opti-
mization, hence improving the reliability, efficiency, and performance of electric vehicle
batteries. Testing of these algorithms will focus on real driving settings, including diverse
driving patterns such as urban, highway, and mixed-mode scenarios, as well as envi-
ronmental restrictions to ensure robustness and practical applicability. Interdisciplinary
collaborations, encompassing connections between material science, control systems, and
software engineering, may yield innovative techniques.
Other important issues are such practical concerns as cost reduction, scalability, and
environmental adaptability. They require research in low-cost sensor technologies, energy-
efficient communication protocols, and lightweight algorithms. These would guarantee the
applicability of such systems throughout diverse applications, from small-scale residential
systems to large-scale industrial setups. Environmental adaptability will be assured by
implementing designs of systems ensuring reliable operation in hostile conditions like
extreme temperature or high humidity thus they are globally applicable. It will help
support real-time monitoring and control by the convergence of advanced sensing and
communication technologies, such as 5G and long-range communication systems like LoRa.
The embracement of such research areas and focused attention on them will serve to set the
stage for next-generation energy management systems, the efficiency and sustainability of
which are fully assured.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.K.G., N.A.A.A. and M.K.H.; methodology, A.K.G.;

validation, N.A.A.A. and M.K.H.; formal analysis, A.K.G. and N.A.A.A.; investigation, M.K.H.;
resources, A.K.G.; writing—original draft preparation, A.K.G.; writing—review and editing, M.K.H.;
visualization, M.K.H.; supervision, N.A.A.A. and M.K.H.; project administration, N.A.A.A.; funding
acquisition, N.A.A.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research was funded by the grants from Multimedia University IR Fund (MMUI/230034)
and the APC was funded by Multimedia University.

Data Availability Statement: All data are presented in the manuscript.

Acknowledgments: The authors sincerely acknowledge Multimedia University and Universiti Putra
Malaysia for the facility provided.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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