Chapter 2: Fundamentals

Prof. Dongjun Won

School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Inha University, Incheon, Korea

1
Introduction
• Review basic concepts and establish
terminology and notation.

• Phasors

• Instantaneous power

• Complex power

• Network equations

• Balanced three-phase circuits

2
2.1 Phasor
• Sinusoidal voltage
1 𝑇 2 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
• RMS or effective value V= න 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑇 0 2

• By using Euler’s identity

• RMS phasor representation

3
2.1 Phasor
• Relationships between V, I and RLC
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅 ∙ 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐿 ∙ 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶 ∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• Assumption for Phasor analysis

• Linear, steady-state response, constant frequency
4
2.2 Instantaneous Power in Single-Phase AC Circuits
• Load voltage is given as
• Purely Resistive Load
• The current into the resistive load is

• The instantaneous power absorbed by the resistor is

• An average value is
1 𝑇
𝑃𝑅 = න 𝑝𝑅 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0

5
2.2 Instantaneous Power in Single-Phase AC Circuits
• Purely Inductive Load
• The current into the inductive load is
• The instantaneous power absorbed by the inductor is

• An average value is 0

6
2.2 Instantaneous Power in Single-Phase AC Circuits
• Purely Capacitive Load
• The current into the capacitive load is
• The instantaneous power absorbed by the capacitor is

• An average value is 0

7
2.2 Instantaneous Power in Single-Phase AC Circuits
• Generic RLC Load
• The load current is

• The instantaneous power absorbed by the load is

8
2.2 Instantaneous Power in Single-Phase AC Circuits
• Real (or Active) Power
• Instantaneous power absorbed by the resistive component
• Average value:

• Reactive Power
• Instantaneous power absorbed by the reactive part of the load
• Zero average
• With amplitude:

• Physical Significance of Real and Reactive Power

• Real power
• Total energy absorbed by a load during a time interval T
• All of which is absorbed by the resistive component of the load
• Charged on the electricity bill
• Reactive power
• Reversible flow of energy to and from the reactive component of the load
• Useful quantity when describing operation of power systems Ex) Shunt capacitors
• Not charged to the customers
9
2.2 Instantaneous Power in Single-Phase AC Circuits
• Power Factor:
• Power factor angle (Angle between the voltage and current) :
• Lagging power factor
• Inductive load pf angle designation load
• Voltage angle > current angle
(θV-θI) > 0 Lagging inductive
• Leading power factor (θV-θI) < 0 Leading capacitive
• Capacitive load
• Current angle > voltage angle Note the case of 𝜹 − 𝜷 > 𝟗𝟎°

• Load and generator conventions

10
2.3 Complex Power
• Complex power absorbed by the element:

• Magnitude of the complex power is called the apparent power

11
2.3 Complex Power
• Complex power absorbed by any of RLC elements

• The following can be stated

12
2.3 Complex Power
• Notable equations

13
Example 2.1
• The voltage v(t)=141.4 cos(ωt) is applied to a load consisting of a 10Ω resistor in parallel with an
inductive reactance XL=ωL=3.77Ω.

• (a) Calculate the instantaneous power absorbed by the resistor and by the inductor.

14
Example 2.1
• (b) Calculate the real and reactive power absorbed by the load, and the power factor.

15
Example 2.2
• A single-phase voltage source with V=100∠130° volts delivers a current I=10∠10° A, which
leaves the positive terminal of the source.
• Calculate the source real and reactive power, and state whether the source delivers or absorbs
each of these.

16
Example 2.3
• A single-phase source delivers 100 kW to a load operating at a power factor of 0.8 lagging.
• (a) Calculate the reactive power to be delivered by a capacitor connected in parallel with the
load in order to raise the source power factor to 0.95 lagging.

• (b) Draw the power triangle for the source and load.
• Assume that the source voltage is constant
• Neglect the line impedance between the source and load

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2.4 Network Equations
• Kirchhoff ’s current law (KCL) and voltage law (KVL) can be applied for phasor currents and
voltages : nodal analysis, mesh or loop analysis, superposition, source transformations, and
Thevenin’s theorem or Norton’s theorem

• Nodal Equations
• Various computer solutions of power system problems are formulated from nodal equations

18
2.4 Network Equations

The elements of Y are formed as follows:

19
2.4 Network Equations
• Nodal Equations
• Result:

20
2.5 Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
• Three-phase synchronous generator

• Balanced Y Connections
• Neutrals of each phase are connected
• Three-phase load is balanced
• The load impedances
in all three phases
are identical

• Balanced Line-to-Neutral Voltages (Phase voltage)

• Balanced source
• Vs have equal magnitudes and equal 120°-phase difference between any two phases

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2.5 Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
• Sequence
• Positive sequence(abc sequence) when Ean
leads Ebn by 120 ° and Ebn leads Ecn by 120 °.

• Negative sequence(acb sequence) when Ean

leads Ecn by 120 ° and Ecn leads Ebn by 120 °.

• Zero sequence when Ean, Ebn and Ecn in same

phase and magnitude.
Positive sequence Negative sequence Zero sequence

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2.5 Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
• Balanced Line-to-Line Voltages
• Line-to-line voltage

• In a balanced three-phase Y-connected system with

positive-sequence sources, the line-to-line voltages are
3 times the line-to-neutral voltages and lead by 30º

= 3 ∙ 10 ∙ ∠30°
= 3 ∙ 10 ∙ ∠ −90°
= 3 ∙ 10 ∙ ∠150°
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2.5 Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
• Line currents

• Neutral current
• Neutral current will be zero for any neutral impedance ranging from 0 to ∞ as long as the system is
balanced
• If the system is unbalanced (source voltages, load impedances, or line impedances were unbalanced)
the line currents will not be balance and a neutral current may flow between bus n and N

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2.5 Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
• Balanced Δ Loads
• ∆-load current(Phase current)

= 3IAB∠ − 30°
= 3IBC∠ − 30°
= 3ICA∠ − 30°

• Sum of balanced ∆-load currents equals zero

• Sum of line currents is always zero
• Even if in the unbalanced condition, since there is no neutral wire
• Impossible to detect fault current in neutral wire

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2.5 Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
• Δ-Y Conversion for Balanced Loads
• For the ∆-load

• For the Y-load

• The relationship can be expressed as

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2.5 Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
• General Δ-Y Conversion

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2.5 Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
• Equivalent Line-to-Neutral Diagrams
• Voltages are given by L-L, RMS
• Standard industry practice
• One phase analysis is enough for balanced system
• Use phase voltage and Y load impedance/phase for one phase analysis

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Example 2.4
• A balanced, positive-sequence, Y-connected voltage source with Eab=480∠0° volts is applied to
a balanced-∆ load with Z∆=30∠40°Ω. The line impedance between the source and load is
ZL=1∠85°Ω for each phase.
• Calculate the line currents, the D-load currents, and the voltages at the load terminals.

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2.6 Power in Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
• Instantaneous Power:
Balanced Three-Phase
Generators/Motors and
Impedance Loads

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2.6 Power in Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
• Complex Power: Balanced Three-Phase Generators/Motors
• Voltage and current at phase ‘a’

• Complex power that leaves ‘a’

• Power delivered by the generator

• Apparent power

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2.6 Power in Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
• Complex Power: Balanced-Y and Balanced-∆ Impedance Loads
• Voltage and current at ‘a-b’

• Complex power absorbed by ‘a-b’

• Total power absorbed by the ∆ load

• Apparent power

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Example 2.5
• Two balanced three-phase motors in parallel, an induction motor drawing 400 kW at 0.8 power
factor lagging and a synchronous motor drawing 150 kVA at 0.9 power factor leading, are
supplied by a balanced, three-phase 4,160V source. Cable impedances between the source
and load are neglected.
• (a) Draw the power triangle for each motor and for the combined-motor load.
• (b) Determine the power factor of the combined-motor load.

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Example 2.5
• (c) Determine the magnitude of the line current delivered by the source.
• (d) A ∆-connected capacitor bank is now installed in parallel with the combined-motor load.
What value of capacitive reactance is required in each leg of the capacitor bank to make the
source power factor unity?
• (e) Determine the magnitude of the line current delivered by the source with the capacitor bank
installed.

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2.7 Advantages of Balanced Three-Phase versus Single-
Phase Systems
• Advantages
• Reduction of capital and costs of transmission and distribution, as well as better voltage regulation
• Each single-phase system requires that both the forward and return conductors have a current capacity equal
to or greater than the load current
• Loss and voltage drop is reduced
• Neutral conductor
- Used to reduce transient overvoltages and to carry unbalanced currents
- Smaller than phase conductor

35
2.7 Advantages of Balanced Three-Phase versus Single-
Phase Systems
• Advantages
• Total instantaneous power under balanced steady-state conditions is constant
• Single phase power has double frequency component

• Double frequency component creates shaft vibration and noise

• Constant power of three-phase system

• Mechanical power = Electrical power + Small generator losses

• Shaft torque = Mechanical power / Rotational speed
• Most generators and motors rated 5 kVA and higher are constructed as three-phase
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Balanced Three Phase Circuits Summary

Voltage Current Power

Complex power
Phase Current
Y = Line Current
Line to Line Voltage
= * Phase Voltage

Apparent power
Phase Voltage
∆ Line Current
= Line to Line Voltage
= * Phase Current

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2.8 Energy Conversion
• Non-Electric to Electric energy conversion :
Generation

• Electric to Non-Electric energy conversion : Load

• Electric to Electric energy conversion : Change of

frequency and voltage
• Transformer (AC/AC with same frequency)
• AC/DC : Rectifier
• DC/AC : Inverter
• DC/DC : Converter
• AC/AC : Variable frequency drive (VFD)

• Harmonics
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