Data communication

Module 1
Data communication is the process of transferring data between two devices or locations, using a
transmission medium like a wire or wireless connection. It involves the use of physical
phenomena, like light or electromagnetic waves, to move information.
Data communication is essential for network communication and involves several components,
including:
 Sender: The device that initiates the transmission of data
 Receiver: The device that receives the data
 Transmission medium: The physical connection that carries the data, such as a wire or
wireless connection
 Protocols: A set of rules that govern how data is exchanged
The effectiveness of a data communication system is determined by four key characteristics:
 Delivery: The data is delivered to the correct destination
 Accuracy: The data is delivered accurately
 Timeliness: The data is delivered in a timely manner
 Jitter: The variation in the packet arrival time
Some examples of data communication include:
 Connecting a laptop to a Wi-Fi network
 Using optical fiber cables to carry data as light
What is Signal?
A signal is a function of one or more variables that indicate some (usually physical)
phenomenon. Signal serves as carriers of information between communication devices. They can
convey different types of information depending on the application required. These signals can
be of different forms.
Examples of Signals
 Human voice and sound waves.
 Voltage in electrical circuits
 Room temperature controlled by a thermostat system
 Position, speed, and acceleration of an aircraft
 Accelerometers measured with accelerometers in mobile phones
 Force measured with force sensors in robotic systems
 Electromagnetic waves used to transmit information in wireless computer networks
 Digital photographs
  Digital Music Recording.
Types of Signals
There are different types of signals which are given below:
 Analog Signals
 Digital Signals
 Real and Complex Signals
 Deterministic and Random Signals
 Periodic and Non-periodic Signals
1. Analog Signals
These signals are continuing (e.g., a real variable) and infinitely varying with time parameter or
can take any value within a given range. These signals are represented by the sine wave.
Examples of analog signals are audio signals, temperature readings, sound waves or television
waves.

Analog Signal Graph

2. Digital Signals
A signal that is a function of discrete variables (e.g., an integer variable) is said to be discrete
time and this are represent in binary form (0s and 1s). More robust against noise. Commonly
used in computer systems and telecommunications.

Digital Signal Graph

3. Real and Complex Signals
If the value of the signal x(t) is a real number, the signal x(t) is also a real signal; If the value of
the signal x(t) is a complex number, the signal x(t) is complex. signal. In general, the complex
signal x(t) is a function of the form
x(t)= x1(t) + jx2(t)
where x1(t) and x2(t) are real symbols, j = V - 1.
The above equation represents a constant variable or the difference between the two.
4. Deterministic and Random Signals
A deterministic signal is one whose value is always specified exactly. Therefore, the decision
signal can be modeled by knowing time t. A random signal is one that takes a significant amount
of time and needs to be characterized.

Deterministic and Random Signal Graph

5. Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals

A continuous signal is a signal of infinite duration that repeats the same pattern over and over
again is called periodic signal. One-sided or time-limited signals can never be periodic. Any
continuous-time signal which is not periodic signal is known as non-periodic (or aperiodic)
signal.

Periodic Signal Graph

 Aperiodic signal Graph
Signal Parameters
Some of the signal parameters are:
 Amplitude
 Frequency
 Phase
 Wavelength

Signal Parameter Graph

In data communication, a composite signal is a signal made up of multiple simple sine waves
that have different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases. Composite signals are necessary for data
communication because a single sine wave with a single frequency is not useful.
Composite signals
Composite signals are used in broadcast color TV, where video and audio are mixed into a single
signal for transmission.
Here are some other things to know about composite signals:
If a composite signal is periodic, it can be broken down into a series of signals with discrete
frequencies.
A composite signal made up of 𝑛 carriers of equal level and randomly phased has a total average
power that is 𝑛 times the power of one carrier.
A single-frequency sine wave (simple sine wave) is not useful in data communications; we need
to change one or more of its characteristics to make it useful. When we change one or more
characteristics of a single, single--frequency signal, it becomes a composite signal made of many
frequencies. A composite signal can be periodic or non-periodic. A periodic composite signal
can be decomposed into a series of simple sine waves with discrete frequencies, frequencies that
have integer values (1, 2, 3, and so on). A non-periodic composite signal can be decomposed into
a combination of an infinite number of simple sine waves with continuous frequencies,
frequencies that have real values.
The following figure shows a periodic composite signal with frequency f. This type of signal is
not typical of those found in data communications. We can consider it to be three alarm systems,
each with a different frequency.

Decomposition of Composite Signal:

It is very difficult to manually decompose this signal into a series of simple sine waves. The
following figure shows the result of decomposing the above signal in both the time and
frequency domains.

The amplitude of the sine wave with frequency f is almost the same as the peak amplitude of the
composite signal. The amplitude of the sine wave with frequency 3f is one-third of that of the
first, and the amplitude of the sine wave with frequency 9f is one-ninth of the first.
The frequency of the sine wave with frequency f is the same as the frequency of the composite
signal; it is called the fundamental frequency, or first harmonic.
The sine wave with frequency 3fhas a frequency of 3 times the fundamental frequency; it is
called the third harmonic. The third sine wave with frequency 9f has a frequency of 9 times the
fundamental frequency; it is called the ninth harmonic.

Note that the frequency decomposition of the signal is discrete; it has frequencies f, 3f, and 9f
because f is an integral number, 3f and 9f are also integral numbers. There are no frequencies
such as 1.2f or 2.6f. The frequency domain of a periodic composite signal is always made of
discrete spikes.

Bandwidth
The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its bandwidth. The bandwidth is
normally a difference between two numbers. For example, if a composite signal contains
frequencies between 1000 and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000 - 1000, or 4000.
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies contained in that signal.

The figure depicts two composite signals, one periodic and the other nonperiodic. The bandwidth
of the periodic signal contains all integer frequencies between 1000 and 5000 (1000, 1001, 1002,
...). The bandwidth of the nonperiodic signals has the same range, but the frequencies are
continuous.
Examole 1
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have a
maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution: Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the bandwidth. Then B
=fh - fl = 900 - 100 =800 Hz The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900
Hz

DIGITAL SIGNALS
In addition to being represented by an analog signal, information can also be represented by a
digital signal. For example, a I can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage. A
digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit for each
level. Figure 3.16 shows two signals, one with two levels and the other with four.
Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other with four signal levels

We send 1 bit per level in part a of the figure and 2 bits per level in part b of the figure. In
general, if a signal has L levels, each level needs log L bits.
Example 2
A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level?
We calculate the number of bits from the formula
Number of bits per level = log 8 = 3
Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.
Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal
Based on Fourier analysis, a digital signal is a composite analog signal. The bandwidth is
infinite, as you may have guessed. We can intuitively corne up with this concept when we
consider a digital signal. A digital signal, in the time domain, comprises connected vertical and
horizontal line segments. A vertical line in the time domain means a frequency of infinity
(sudden change in time); a horizontal line in the time domain means a frequency of zero (no
change in time). Going from a frequency of zero to a frequency of infinity (and vice versa)
implies all frequencies in between are part of the domain. Fourier analysis can be used to
decompose a digital signal. If the digital signal is periodic, which is rare in data communications,
the decomposed signal has a frequency domain representation with an infinite bandwidth and
discrete frequencies. If the digital signal is nonperiodic, the decomposed signal still has an
infinite bandwidth, but the frequencies are continuous. In figure below shows a periodic and a
nonperiodic digital signal and their bandwidths.

Transmission of Digital Signals

The previous discussion asserts that a digital signal, periodic or nonperiodic, is a composite
analog signal with frequencies between zero and infinity. For the remainder of the discussion, let
us consider the case of a nonperiodic digital signal, similar to the ones we encounter in data
communications.
The fundamental question is, How can we send a digital signal from point A to point B?
We can transmit a digital signal by using one of two different approaches:
baseband transmission or broadband transmission (using modulation).
1- Baseband Transmission :- Baseband transmission means sending a digital signal over a
channel without changing the digital signal to an analog signal.
2- Broadband Transmission (Using Modulation) Broadband transmission or modulation means
changing the digital signal to an analog signal for transmission.
Medium Bandwidth and Significant Bandwidth:
A transmission medium has a limited bandwidth which mean that it can transfer only a some
range of frequencies. A transmission medium with a particular bandwidth is capable of
transmitting only digital signals whose significant bandwidth is less than the bandwidth of the
medium. If a signal is sent on a transmission medium whose bandwidth is less than the required
significant bandwidth, the signal may be so distorted that it is not recognizable at the receiver.
Medium Bandwidth and Data Rate (Channel Capacity)
The significant bandwidth of a signal increases with bit rate. This means when the bit rate is
increased, we have wider significant bandwidth, and consequently we need medium with wider
bandwidth to transfer that signal. The maximum bit rate a transmission medium can transfer is
called channel capacity of the medium.for example , a normal telephone line with a bandwidth of
3000 Hz is capable of transferring up to 20000 bps, but other factors can decrease this rate.
Time and Frequency Domains
A sine wave is comprehensively defined by its amplitude, frequency, and phase. We have been
showing a sine wave by using what is called a time-domain plot. The timedomain plot shows
changes in signal amplitude with respect to time (it is an amplitude-versus-time plot). Phase is
not explicitly shown on a time-domain plot. To show the relationship between amplitude and
frequency, we can use what is called a frequency-domain plot. A frequency-domain plot is
concerned with only the peak value and the frequency. Changes of amplitude during one period
are not shown. Figure below shows a signal in both the time and frequency domains.