MODULE 1 – Engineering Utilities 1

BASICS OF ELECTRICITY
What is ELECTRICITY?

It is the presence of electric flow and charge. Its best-known

form is the flow of electrons through conductors such as copper
wires, thereby producing light energy, heat energy, motion,
force, etc…and many other uses.

ELECTRICAL THEORY

All matter is made up of atoms.

✓ All atoms are made
up of a central
positively charged
nucleus surrounded
by negatively
charged electrons
✓ The electrical
properties of
materials depends largely upon how tightly these
electrons are bound to the nucleus.
✓ A conductor is a material in which the electrons are 3. Chemical Effect
loosely bound to the central nucleus and, in fact, can
be easily become free electrons drift around randomly 1. Heating Effect
inside a conductor ▪ The electrons moving in the conductor causes to heat
✓ Good conductors are gold, silver, copper, aluminum, up.
brass, etc.. ▪ The amount of heat generated depends upon the:
✓ An insulator is a material in which the electrons are 1. Amount of current flowing
very tightly 2. Dimensions of the conductor
Or strongly bound to the central nucleus. 3. Type of conductor material used
✓ Good insulators are pvc, rubber, glass, wood, porcelain, ▪ Practical applications of the heating effect of an
etc… electric current are:
1. Radiant heaters which heat rooms
2. Current protection fuses and MCB’s which
ELECTRON FLOW OR ELECTRIC CURRENT cut off the supply when overcurrent flows.

• If battery is attached to a “good conductors” 2. Magnetic Effect

material, the free electrons drift towards the positive ▪ Whenever a current flows in a conductor a magnetic
terminal. field is set up around the conductor like an extension
• The drift of electrons within a conductor is what we of the insulator -more about this layer.
know as an electric current flow ▪ Increasing the current increases the magnetic field.
• Current flow is given the symbol I and is measured in ▪ Switching the current off causes the magnetic field to
amperes. collapse.
▪ Practical Application of the Magnetic Effect are:
ELECTRICAL CABLES 1. Electric motors which rotate because of the
magnetic flux generated by the electrical
Electrical cables are used to carry electric currents. Most supply.
cables are constructed in three parts; 2. door chimes and buzzers which ‘dingdong’ or
1. The conductor, that carries the current and may have buzz because of the magnetic flux generated
a stranded or solid core. by the electrical supply.
2. The insulation, that contains the current and is colour
coded for identification. 3. Chemical Effect
3. The outer sheath that may contain some means of ▪ When an electric current flows through a conducting
providing protection from mechanical damage. liquid, the liquid separates into its chemical parts, a
process called ‘Electrolysis’.
THREE EFFECTS OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT ▪ Alternatively, if two metals are placed in a conducting
1. Heating Effect liquid they react chemically and produce a voltage.
2. Magnetic Effect ▪ Practical Applications of the chemical effect are:
 1. Industrial processes such as electroplating Obtained from A.C Generators Cell or Battery.
which is used to siver plate sports trophies and and mains
cutlery. Passive Impedance Resistance only.
2. Motor car batteries which store electrical Parameters
energy.
Power Factor Lies between 0 & 1 It is always 1.
Types Sinusoidal, Pure & pulsating.
In Electrical Engineering, there are basically two types of voltage trapezoidal,
or current (Electrical Energy) source which defines the kind of square
circuit and they are; Alternating Current (or voltage) and Direct
Current.

AC Circuits

AC circuits as the name (Alternating Current) implies are simply

circuits powered by an Alternating Source, either voltage or
current. An Alternating Current or Voltage, is one in which the
value of either the voltage or the current varies about a
particular mean value and reverses direction periodically.

DC Circuits

In direct current (DC), the electric charge (current) only flows

in one direction. Electric charge in alternating current (AC), on
the other hand, changes direction periodically. The voltage
in AC circuits also periodically reverses because the current
changes direction.

Alternating Current Vs. Direct Current

Alternating Direct Current

Current
Amount of energy Safe to transfer Voltage of DC AC WAVEFORMS
that can be over longer city cannot travel very
When an alternator produces AC voltage, the voltage switches
carried. distances and can far until it begins
polarity over time, but does so in a very particular manner.
provide more to lose energy.
When graphed over time, the “wave” traced by this voltage of
power.
alternating polarity from an alternator takes on a distinct
Cause of the Rotating magnet Steady
shape, known as a sine wave: Figure below
direction of flow along the wire. magnetism along
of electrons. the wire.
Frequency The frequency of The frequency of
alternating direct current is
current is 50 Hz zero.
or 60 Hz
defending upon
the country.
Direction Its reverses its It flows in one
direction while direction in the
flowing in the circuit.
Graph of AC voltage over time (the sine wave).
circuit.
Current It is the current It is the current
of magnitude of constant
In the voltage plot from an electromechanical alternator, the
varying with time. magnitude.
change from one polarity to the other is a smooth one, the
Flow of electrons Electrons keep Electrons move voltage level changing most rapidly at the zero (“crossover”)
switching steadily in one point and most slowly at its peak. If we were to graph the
directions – direction or trigonometric function of “sine” over a horizontal range of 0 to
forward and ‘forward’. 360 degrees, we would find the exact same pattern as in the
backward. Table below. Trigonometric “sine” function.
 Angle (°) Sin (angle) Wave Frequency
Angle (°) FormulaSin (angle) Wave

0 0.0000 zero 180 The SI unit which is hertz was named after Heinrich
0.0000 zero Rudolf.
Furthermore, 1 hz refers to one cycle per second.

15 0.2588 + 195 -0.2588 -

Frequency = 1/period = number of cycles/time
30 0.5000 + 210 -0.5000 -

45 0.7071 + 225 f = 1/T = N/t -0.7071 -

T = period, the time which is required for one cycle
N = a particular number of cycles
60 0.8660 + 240 t = a particular amount
-0.8660
of time, sec -

75 0.9659 + 255 -0.9659 -

OTHER FORMS OF ALTERNATING WAVES
90 1.0000 +peak 270 -1.0000 -peak
While electromechanical alternators and many other physical
phenomena naturally produce sine waves, this is not the only kind
105 0.9659 + 285 -0.9659 -
of alternating wave in existence. Other “waveforms” of AC are
commonly produced within electronic circuitry. Here are but a
120 0.8660 + 300 -0.8660 -
few sample waveforms and their common designations in the
figure below.
135 0.7071 + 315 -0.7071 -

150 0.5000 + 330 -0.5000 -

165 0.2588 + 345 -0.2588 -

180 0.0000 zero 360 0.0000 zero

What is FREQUENCY as defined in Electrical Engineering?

Module 2 – Engineering Utilities 1
Frequency refers to the number of occurrences of a repeating
event taking place per unit of time. This number of occurrences is The Electric Circuit
certainly an essential property of a wave. The waves surround
people every day. Furthermore, light happens to be Introduction
an electromagnetic wave and the sound of the fan is a sound wave. A
wave is certainly a vibration and carries energy with it. Most Electric circuit theory is one of the most vital aspects of
electrical engineering. Understanding how components work
noteworthy, the number of waves passing by each second refers to
individually and collectively is the basis for designing,
the frequency of the wave. Moreover, its measurement takes place
manufacturing, and troubleshooting all kinds of electronic
in Hertz (Hz). devices and systems. This module will cover the basic circuit
components, laws, and parameters in electrical & electronics
Frequency is the inverse of time for repeating events. If a engineering.
single cycle of your mains is 1/50 of a second in duration (0.02
seconds), then there will be 50 cycles in a second (1 / 0.02). We What is an Electric Circuit?
say the frequency is 50 Hz.
The unit for frequency is the Hertz (Hz). 1 Hz is equal to 1 cycle In the simplest terms, an electric circuit is a pathway for an
electric current to flow from one point to another. From a high
per second, an older name for it (cps). It's a convenient unit,
level, every circuit has three basic components:
even for very short cycles we use, with a prefix: MHz, GHz. For
➢ Voltage source
longer cycles (near or longer than 1 Hz) we sometimes use the ➢ Conductive path
minute as unit: a heart rate of 70 beats per minute (BPM), a ➢ A Load
metronome setting of 100 BPM.
 Simple Electric Circuit • Electromechanical components are components that utilize
electric current or voltage in a circuit to perform a mechanical
function, e.g., DC motors or relays. In the case
of electromechanical solenoids, voltage is used to actuate a set
of mechanical contacts by varying the inductance in its coil.

Voltage Source I – Current, amperes

A voltage source introduces energy into a circuit via a potential

difference between its positive (+) and negative (–) terminals.
Voltage sources can be AC or DC–the main difference being how
the current flows. AC sources produce voltages that vary
sinusoidally, i.e. the current reverses direction periodically.
Examples are power from the grid or generators. On the other
hand, DC sources produce current that flows in one direction.
Batteries are a source of DC voltage.

Conductive Path

A conductive path (aka a conductor) provides a medium for

current flow through a circuit. These components have a very low
resistance to current, e.g., copper wires, lead solder, or metallic
Electric Circuit Analysis: Circuit Parameters
traces on a printed circuit board (PCB). Conductors also help link
other components together to achieve a single function.
Current and voltage are the most essential parameters of
electric circuits. Similarly, resistance, inductance, and
Load
capacitance are vital attributes of electronic components.

A load is any device that consumes power in a circuit. It can be

Current
anything from a light-emitting diode (LED) to a motor or siren.
During a short circuit, the load is the conductor itself which
generates heat, dissipating electric power. Electric current is the flow of electrons through a circuit. The
unit of measurement for current is Ampere (A). As we
discussed earlier, the current can be AC or DC.
Electric Circuit Analysis: Types of Components

An electronic component is an element within an We can find the value of current flowing through a circuit using
electronic circuit that affects the flow of current or Ohm’s law which states that the current between any
electromagnetic fields. Many modern circuits comprise passive, two points is proportional to the potential difference between
active, and electromechanical components. them.

• Passive components are elements that consume electric power Voltage

without introducing any net energy into a circuit. Common
examples are resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Voltage (V) sometimes referred to as Electromotive force (E) is
the potential difference between any two points in an
• Active components control the flow of current in electric electric circuit. The unit of measurement is the Volt. Like a
circuits. These elements may amplify current, inject it into a current, the voltage can be AC or DC.
circuit, or produce a power gain. Transistors, thyristors, and
triode vacuum tubes are all active components. Voltage can also be derived from Ohm’s Law using the formula ;

I=V/R where: V= voltage

I = current
R = resistance

Resistance
Resistance is the attribute of a component to resist the flow of Electrical Power and Electrical Energy
electric current through a circuit. The unit of measurement is
Ohms (Greek symbol: Ω). Electrical power and electrical energy are quantities
equivalent to power and energy known from other
According to Ohm’s Law, the resistance of a conductor is the technical and scientific fields, e.g., mechanics, physics,
ratio of voltage (V) flowing across it to the current (I) flowing chemistry, etc. The only formal difference is that electrical
through it. Mathematically, power and energy are related to electric circuits and other
electrical quantities. For example, the power P in a circuit
with a steady voltage V and current I and with application
R = V/I where: V= voltage
of Ohm's law can be simply calculated as:
I = current
R = resistance
P = V x I = I2 x R = V2 / R

Inductance, L where: P= watts, W

I = current, ampere, A
Inductance is the tendency for a magnetic field to be induced in V = potential difference, volts, V
a conductor when an electric current flows through it. The
strength of this induced magnetic field is proportional to the MODULE 3 – Engineering Utilities 1
magnitude of the current. The unit of measurement for
inductance is Henrys (H), named after Joseph Henry, the Ohms Law
American scientist that discovered it. Ohms Law - Guidelines to Series-Parallel Combination Circuit
Analysis
Inductors, aka chokes or coils, are simple passive components The goal of series-parallel resistor circuit analysis is to be able
that can store up energy in magnetic form when electric to determine all voltage drops, currents, and power dissipations
current flows through them. They consist of a conductor wound in a circuit. The general strategy to accomplish this goal is as
into a coil which generates a magnetic field in the opposite follows:
direction when an electric current is applied. •Step 1: Assess which resistors in a circuit are connected
together in simple series or simple parallel.
We can calculate the inductance in an electric circuit using the •Step 2: Re-draw the circuit, replacing each of those series or
formula: parallel resistor combinations identified in step 1 with a single,
equivalent-value resistor. If using a table to manage variables,
make a new table column for each resistance equivalent.
L = V/(di/dt) where: L= inductance in Henry (H)
•Step 3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 until the entire circuit is reduced
V = voltage in volts, V
to one equivalent resistor.
di/dt= rate of change of current in A/s
•Step 4: Calculate total current from total voltage and total
resistance (I=E/R).
Capacitance •Step 5: Taking total voltage and total current values, go back to
last step in the circuit reduction process and insert those
Capacitance is the ability of a circuit element to store an electric values where applicable.
charge when a potential difference exists between its •Step 6: From known resistances and total voltage / total
terminals. The unit of capacitance is the Farad, named current values from step 5, use Ohm’s Law to calculate unknown
after Michael Faraday, the scientist that discovered values (voltage or current) (E=IR or I=E/R).
electromagnetic induction. •Step 7: Repeat steps 5 and 6 until all values for voltage and
current are known in the original circuit configuration.
To determine the capacitance of a component in an electric Essentially, you will proceed step-by-step from the simplified
circuit, we can use the formula: version of the circuit back into its original, complex form, plugging
in values of voltage and current where appropriate until all values
of voltage and current are known.
C = Q / V where: C= capacitance, farad
•Step 8: Calculate power dissipations from known voltage,
Q = charge, coulomb’s
current, and/or resistance values.
V = potential difference, volts
OHM’S LAW

The first, and perhaps most important, the relationship

between current, voltage, and resistance is called Ohm’s Law,
discovered by Georg Simon Ohm and published in his 1827
paper. It states that the Current is directly proportional with
Voltage and inversely proportional with the Resistance.

Voltage, Current, and Resistance

An electric circuit is formed when a conductive path is
created to allow electric charge to continuously move. This
continuous movement of electric charge through the
conductors of a circuit is called a current. The unit of current A series generally means connected along a line, or in a row, or in
is expressed in amperes or simply A. an order. In electronics, series resistance means that the
resistors are connected one after the other and that there is
The force motivating charge carriers to “flow” in a circuit is only one path for current to flow.
called voltage. Voltage is a specific measure of potential
energy that is always relative between two points. It
expressed in volts, or simply v or V.

Current tends to move through the conductors with some

degree of friction, or opposition to motion. This opposition to
motion is more properly called resistance (R). It is expressed
in Ohms and abbreviated (Ω) The amount of current in a
circuit depends on the amount of voltage and the amount of Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + ….. + Rn
resistance in the circuit to oppose current flow. It = I1 = I2 = I3 = I4 = I5 = ………….. = In
Vt = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5 + …….+ Vn
Resistors in Parallel –
Ohm's law formula:
There are many different ways to organize a parallel circuit. In
I = V / R
the practical word, most of the wiring is done in parallel so that
the voltage to any one part of the network is the same as the
The resistor's current I in amps (A) is equal to the resistor's
voltage supplied to any part of it.
voltage V in volts (V) divided by the resistance R in
ohms (Ω): V is the voltage drop of the resistor, measured in Volts
(V). In some cases Ohm's law uses the letter E to represent
voltage.

Electrical Power in Circuits

Electrical Power, ( P ) in a circuit is the rate at which

energy is absorbed or produced within a circuit. A source of
energy such as a voltage will produce or deliver power while the
connected load absorbs it. Light bulbs and heaters for example,
absorb electrical power and convert it into either heat, or light,
1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ……. + 1/Rn
or both. The higher their value or rating in watts the more
It = I1 + I1 + I3 + I4 + I5 + …………… + In
electrical power they are likely to consume. The quantity symbol
Vt = V1 = V2 = V3 = V4 = V5 = ……. = VN
for power is P and is the product of voltage multiplied by the
current ( V x I ) with the unit of measurement being the Watt
Equivalent Resistance
( W ).
I/Rt = 1/ R1 + 1/R2
Prefixes are used to denote the various multiples or sub-
1/Rt = 1/4 + 1/4
multiples of a watt, such as: milliwatts (mW = 10-3W) or
1/Rt = ½
kilowatts (kW = 1000 W).
Then by using Ohm’s law and substituting for the values of V, I
and R the formula for electrical power can be found as:

[ P = V x I ] P (watts) = V (volts) x I (amps)

Also:
[ P = V2 ÷ R ] P (watts) = V2 (volts) ÷ R (Ω)
Combinations of Series and Parallel
Also:
[ P = I2 x R ] P (watts) = I2 (amps) x R (Ω)
Combinations of series and parallel can be reduced to a single
equivalent resistance using the technique illustrated in Figure
Resistors in Series –
below. Various parts are identified as either series or parallel,
reduced to their equivalents, and further reduced until a single
resistance is left. The process is more time consuming than
difficult.
This combination of seven resistors has both series and
parallel parts. Each is identified and reduced to an equivalent
resistance, and these are further reduced until a single
equivalent resistance is reached.