Chapter 2

Application Layer

Computer Networking: A
Top Down Approach
7th Edition, Global Edition
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
Pearson
April 2016

Application Layer 2-1

Chapter 2: outline
2.1 principles of network 2.5 P2P applications
applications 2.6 video streaming and
2.2 Web and HTTP content distribution
2.3 electronic mail networks
• SMTP, POP3, IMAP 2.7 socket programming
2.4 DNS with UDP and TCP

Application Layer 2-2

Chapter 2: application layer
our goals:  learn about protocols by
 conceptual, examining popular
implementation aspects application-level
of network application protocols
protocols • HTTP
• transport-layer • FTP
service models • SMTP / POP3 / IMAP
• DNS
• client-server
paradigm  creating network
applications
• peer-to-peer
paradigm • socket API
• content distribution
networks

Application Layer 2-3

Some network apps
 e-mail  voice over IP (e.g.,
 web Skype)
 text messaging  real-time video
 remote login conferencing
 P2P file sharing  social networking
 multi-user network  search
games  …
 streaming stored  …
video (YouTube, Hulu,
Netflix)

Application Layer 2-4

Creating a network app application
transport
network
data link
physical
write programs that:
 run on (different) end systems
 communicate over network
 e.g., web server software
communicates with browser
software

no need to write software for

application
transport
network
network-core devices data link
physical
application
transport
network
 network-core devices do not run data link
physical
user applications
 applications on end systems
allows for rapid app development,
propagation
Application Layer 2-5
Application architectures
possible structure of applications:
 client-server
 peer-to-peer (P2P)

Application Layer 2-6

 Client-server architecture
server:
 always-on host
 permanent IP address
 data centers for scaling

clients:
 communicate with server
client/server  may be intermittently
connected
 may have dynamic IP
addresses
 do not communicate directly
with each other

Application Layer 2-7

P2P architecture
 no always-on server peer-peer
 arbitrary end systems
directly communicate
 peers request service from
other peers, provide service
in return to other peers
• self scalability – new
peers bring new service
capacity, as well as new
service demands
 peers are intermittently
connected and change IP
addresses
• complex management

Application Layer 2-8

Processes communicating
process: program running clients, servers
within a host client process: process that
 within same host, two initiates communication
processes communicate server process: process that
using inter-process waits to be contacted
communication (defined by
OS)
 processes in different hosts
communicate by exchanging  aside: applications with P2P
messages architectures have client
processes & server
processes

Application Layer 2-9

Sockets
 process sends/receives messages to/from its socket
 socket analogous to door
• sending process shoves message out door
• sending process relies on transport infrastructure on
other side of door to deliver message to socket at
receiving process

application application
socket controlled by
process process app developer

transport transport
network network controlled
link by OS
link Internet
physical physical

Application Layer 2-10

Addressing processes
 to receive messages,  identifier includes both IP
process must have identifier address and port numbers
 host device has unique 32- associated with process on
bit IP address host.
 Q: does IP address of host  example port numbers:
on which process runs • HTTP server: 80
suffice for identifying the • mail server: 25
process?  to send HTTP message to
gaia.cs.umass.edu web
server:
 A: no, many processes • IP address: 128.119.245.12
can be running on same • port number: 80
host
 more shortly…

Application Layer 2-11

App-layer protocol defines
 types of messages open protocols:
exchanged,  defined in RFCs
• e.g., request, response  allows for interoperability
 message syntax:  e.g., HTTP, SMTP
• what fields in messages proprietary protocols:
& how fields are
delineated  e.g., Skype
 message semantics
• meaning of information
in fields
 rules for when and how
processes send & respond
to messages

Application Layer 2-12

What transport service does an app need?
data integrity throughput
 some apps (e.g., file transfer,  some apps (e.g.,
web transactions) require multimedia) require
100% reliable data transfer minimum amount of
 other apps (e.g., audio) can throughput to be
tolerate some loss “effective”
 other apps (“elastic apps”)
timing make use of whatever
throughput they get
 some apps (e.g., Internet
telephony, interactive
games) require low delay security
to be “effective”  encryption, data integrity,
…
Application Layer 2-13
 Transport service requirements: common apps

application data loss throughput time sensitive

file transfer no loss elastic no

e-mail no loss elastic no
Web documents no loss elastic no
real-time audio/video loss-tolerant audio: 5kbps-1Mbps yes, 100’s
video:10kbps-5Mbps msec
stored audio/video loss-tolerant same as above
interactive games loss-tolerant few kbps up yes, few secs
text messaging no loss elastic yes, 100’s
msec
yes and no

Application Layer 2-14

Internet transport protocols services
TCP service: UDP service:
 reliable transport between  unreliable data transfer
sending and receiving between sending and
process receiving process
 flow control: sender won’t  does not provide: reliability,
overwhelm receiver flow control, congestion
 congestion control: throttle control, timing,
sender when network throughput guarantee,
overloaded security, or connection
 does not provide: timing, setup,
minimum throughput
guarantee, security Q: why bother? Why is
 connection-oriented: setup there a UDP?
required between client and
server processes
Application Layer 2-15
Internet apps: application, transport protocols

application underlying
application layer protocol transport protocol

e-mail SMTP [RFC 2821] TCP

remote terminal access Telnet [RFC 854] TCP
Web HTTP [RFC 2616] TCP
file transfer FTP [RFC 959] TCP
streaming multimedia HTTP (e.g., YouTube), TCP or UDP
RTP [RFC 1889]
Internet telephony SIP, RTP, proprietary
(e.g., Skype) TCP or UDP

Application Layer 2-16

Securing TCP

TCP & UDP SSL is at app layer

 no encryption  apps use SSL libraries, that
 cleartext passwds sent into “talk” to TCP
socket traverse Internet in SSL socket API
cleartext  cleartext passwords sent
SSL into socket traverse
 provides encrypted TCP Internet encrypted
connection  see Chapter 8
 data integrity
 end-point authentication

Application Layer 2-17

Chapter 2: outline
2.1 principles of network 2.5 P2P applications
applications 2.6 video streaming and
2.2 Web and HTTP content distribution
2.3 electronic mail networks
• SMTP, POP3, IMAP 2.7 socket programming
2.4 DNS with UDP and TCP

Application Layer 2-18

Web and HTTP
First, a review…
 web page consists of objects
 object can be HTML file, JPEG image, Java applet,
audio file,…
 web page consists of base HTML-file which
includes several referenced objects
 each object is addressable by a URL, e.g.,
www.someschool.edu/someDept/pic.gif

host name path name

Application Layer 2-19

HTTP overview
HTTP: hypertext
transfer protocol
 Web’s application layer
protocol PC running
 client/server model Firefox browser

• client: browser that

requests, receives,
(using HTTP protocol) server
and “displays” Web running
objects Apache Web
• server: Web server server
sends (using HTTP
protocol) objects in iPhone running
response to requests Safari browser

Application Layer 2-20

HTTP overview (continued)
uses TCP: HTTP is “stateless”
 client initiates TCP  server maintains no
connection (creates socket) information about
to server, port 80 past client requests
 server accepts TCP
connection from client aside
 HTTP messages protocols that maintain
(application-layer protocol “state” are complex!
messages) exchanged  past history (state) must be
between browser (HTTP maintained
client) and Web server  if server/client crashes, their
(HTTP server) views of “state” may be
inconsistent, must be
 TCP connection closed reconciled

Application Layer 2-21

HTTP connections
non-persistent HTTP persistent HTTP
 at most one object  multiple objects can
sent over TCP be sent over single
connection TCP connection
• connection then between client, server
closed
 downloading multiple
objects required
multiple connections

Application Layer 2-22

 Non-persistent HTTP
suppose user enters URL: (contains text,
www.someSchool.edu/someDepartment/home.index references to 10
jpeg images)
1a. HTTP client initiates TCP
connection to HTTP server
(process) at 1b. HTTP server at host
www.someSchool.edu on port www.someSchool.edu waiting
80 for TCP connection at port 80.
“accepts” connection, notifying
2. HTTP client sends HTTP request client
message (containing URL) into
TCP connection socket. 3. HTTP server receives request
Message indicates that client message, forms response
wants object message containing requested
someDepartment/home.index object, and sends message into
its socket
time
Application Layer 2-23
 Non-persistent HTTP (cont.)
4. HTTP server closes TCP
connection.
5. HTTP client receives response
message containing html file,
displays html. Parsing html file,
finds 10 referenced jpeg objects

time
6. Steps 1-5 repeated for each of
10 jpeg objects

Application Layer 2-24

Non-persistent HTTP: response time

RTT (definition): time for a

small packet to travel from
client to server and back
HTTP response time: initiate TCP
 one RTT to initiate TCP connection

connection RTT

 one RTT for HTTP request request

file
and first few bytes of HTTP RTT
time to
response to return transmit
file
 file transmission time file
received
 non-persistent HTTP
response time =
time time
2RTT+ file transmission
time

Application Layer 2-25

Persistent HTTP

non-persistent HTTP issues: persistent HTTP:

 requires 2 RTTs per object  server leaves connection
 OS overhead for each TCP open after sending
connection response
 browsers often open  subsequent HTTP
parallel TCP connections to messages between same
fetch referenced objects client/server sent over
open connection
 client sends requests as
soon as it encounters a
referenced object
 as little as one RTT for all
the referenced objects

Application Layer 2-26

 HTTP request message
 two types of HTTP messages: request, response
 HTTP request message:
• ASCII (human-readable format)
carriage return character
line-feed character
request line
(GET, POST, GET /index.html HTTP/1.1\r\n
HEAD commands) Host: www-net.cs.umass.edu\r\n
User-Agent: Firefox/3.6.10\r\n
Accept: text/html,application/xhtml+xml\r\n
header Accept-Language: en-us,en;q=0.5\r\n
lines Accept-Encoding: gzip,deflate\r\n
carriage return, Accept-Charset: ISO-8859-1,utf-8;q=0.7\r\n
line feed at start Keep-Alive: 115\r\n
Connection: keep-alive\r\n
of line indicates \r\n
end of header lines

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more

examples: http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive/ Application Layer 2-27
HTTP request message: general format

method sp URL sp version cr lf request

line
header field name value cr lf
header
~
~ ~
~ lines

header field name value cr lf

cr lf

~
~ entity body ~
~ body

Application Layer 2-28

Uploading form input
POST method:
 web page often includes
form input POST /test/demo_form.php HTTP/1.1
 input is uploaded to server Host: www.somesite.com
in entity body name1=value1&name2=value2

URL method:
 uses GET method
 input is uploaded in URL
field of request line:
www.somesite.com/test/demo_form.php?name1=value1&name2=value2

Application Layer 2-29

Method types
HTTP/1.0: HTTP/1.1:
 GET  GET, POST, HEAD
 POST  PUT
 HEAD • uploads file in entity
• asks server to leave body to path specified
requested object out in URL field
of response  DELETE
• deletes file specified in
the URL field

https://www.w3schools.com/tags/ref_httpmethods.asp

Application Layer 2-30

 HTTP response message
status line
(protocol
status code HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n
status phrase) Date: Sun, 26 Sep 2010 20:09:20 GMT\r\n
Server: Apache/2.0.52 (CentOS)\r\n
Last-Modified: Tue, 30 Oct 2007 17:00:02
GMT\r\n
header ETag: "17dc6-a5c-bf716880"\r\n
Accept-Ranges: bytes\r\n
lines Content-Length: 2652\r\n
Keep-Alive: timeout=10, max=100\r\n
Connection: Keep-Alive\r\n
Content-Type: text/html; charset=ISO-8859-
1\r\n
data, e.g., \r\n
requested data data data data data ...
HTML file

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more

examples: http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive/ Application Layer 2-31
HTTP response status codes
 status code appears in 1st line in server-to-
client response message.
 some sample codes:
200 OK
• request succeeded, requested object later in this msg
301 Moved Permanently
• requested object moved, new location specified later in this msg
(Location:)
400 Bad Request
• request msg not understood by server
404 Not Found
• requested document not found on this server
505 HTTP Version Not Supported
https://www.w3schools.com/tags/ref_httpmessages.asp Application Layer 2-32
Trying out HTTP (client side) for yourself
1. Telnet to your favorite Web server:
telnet gaia.cs.umass.edu 80 opens TCP connection to port 80
(default HTTP server port)
at gaia.cs.umass. edu.
anything typed in will be sent
to port 80 at gaia.cs.umass.edu

2. type in a GET HTTP request:

GET /kurose_ross/interactive/index.php HTTP/1.1
Host: gaia.cs.umass.edu by typing this in (hit carriage
return twice), you send
this minimal (but complete)
GET request to HTTP server

3. look at response message sent by HTTP server!

(or use Wireshark to look at captured HTTP request/response)
Application Layer 2-33
 User-server state: cookies
example:
many Web sites use cookies  Susan always access Internet
four components: from PC
1) cookie header line of  visits specific e-commerce
HTTP response message site for first time
2) cookie header line in  when initial HTTP requests
next HTTP request arrives at site, site creates:
message • unique ID
3) cookie file kept on • entry in backend
user’s host, managed by database for ID
user’s browser
4) back-end database at
Web site

Application Layer 2-34

 Cookies: keeping “state” (cont.)
client server

ebay 8734
usual http request msg Amazon server
cookie file creates ID
usual http response
1678 for user create backend
ebay 8734
set-cookie: 1678 entry database
amazon 1678
usual http request msg
cookie: 1678 cookie- access
specific
usual http response msg action

one week later:

access
ebay 8734 usual http request msg
amazon 1678 cookie: 1678 cookie-
specific
usual http response msg action
Application Layer 2-35
Cookies (continued)
aside
what cookies can be used cookies and privacy:
for:
 authorization  cookies permit sites to
learn a lot about you
 shopping carts
 recommendations  you may supply name and
 user session state (Web e-mail to sites
e-mail)

how to keep “state”:

 protocol endpoints: maintain state at
sender/receiver over multiple
transactions
 cookies: http messages carry state

Application Layer 2-36

Web caches (proxy server)
goal: satisfy client request without involving origin server
 user sets browser: Web
accesses via cache
 browser sends all HTTP proxy
requests to cache server
• object in cache: cache client
origin
returns object server
• else cache requests
object from origin
server, then returns
object to client
client origin
server

Application Layer 2-37

More about Web caching
 cache acts as both why Web caching?
client and server  reduce response time
• server for original for client request
requesting client
• client to origin server  reduce traffic on an
 typically cache is institution’s access link
installed by ISP  Internet dense with
(university, company, caches: enables “poor”
residential ISP) content providers to
effectively deliver
content (so too does
P2P file sharing)

Application Layer 2-38

Caching example:
assumptions:
 avg object size: 100K bits origin
 avg request rate from browsers to servers
origin servers:15/sec public
 avg data rate to browsers: 1.50 Mbps Internet
 RTT from institutional router to any
origin server: 2 sec
 access link rate: 1.54 Mbps 1.54 Mbps
consequences: access link

 LAN utilization: 0.15% problem! institutional

network
 access link utilization = 99% 1 Gbps LAN
 total delay = Internet delay + access
delay + LAN delay
= 2 sec + minutes + msecs

Application Layer 2-39

Caching example: fatter access link
assumptions:
 avg object size: 100K bits origin
 avg request rate from browsers to servers
origin servers:15/sec public
 avg data rate to browsers: 1.50 Mbps Internet
 RTT from institutional router to any
origin server: 2 sec
 access link rate: 1.54 Mbps 1.54 Mbps
154 Mbps
consequences: access link

 LAN utilization: 0.15% institutional

 access link utilization = 99% network
1 Gbps LAN
 total delay = Internet delay + access
delay + LAN delay
= 2 sec + minutes + msecs
msecs
Cost: increased access link speed (not cheap!)
Application Layer 2-40
Caching example: install local cache
assumptions:
 avg object size: 100K bits origin
 avg request rate from browsers to servers
origin servers:15/sec public
 avg data rate to browsers: 1.50 Mbps Internet
 RTT from institutional router to any
origin server: 2 sec
 access link rate: 1.54 Mbps 1.54 Mbps
consequences: access link

 LAN utilization: 0.15% institutional

 access link utilization = 99% ? network
1 Gbps LAN
 total delay = Internet delay + access
?
delay + LAN delay local web
= 2 sec + minutes + msecs cache

Cost: web cache (cheap!)

Application Layer 2-41
Caching example: install local cache
Calculating access link
utilization, delay with cache:
origin
 suppose cache hit rate is 0.4 servers
• 40% requests satisfied at cache, public
60% requests satisfied at origin Internet

 access link utilization:

 60% of requests use access link
1.54 Mbps
 data rate to browsers over access link access link
= 0.6*1.50 Mbps = .9 Mbps
institutional
 utilization = 0.9/1.54 = .58
network
1 Gbps LAN
 total delay
 = 0.6 * (delay from origin servers) +0.4 local web
* (delay when satisfied at cache) cache
 = 0.6 (2.01) + 0.4 (~msecs) = ~ 1.2 secs
 less than with 154 Mbps link (and
cheaper too!)
Application Layer 2-42
Conditional GET
client server
 Goal: don’t send object if
cache has up-to-date
cached version HTTP request msg
object
If-modified-since: <date>
• no object transmission not
delay modified
• lower link utilization HTTP response
before
HTTP/1.0
 cache: specify date of 304 Not Modified <date>
cached copy in HTTP
request
If-modified-since:
<date> HTTP request msg
 server: response contains If-modified-since: <date> object
modified
no object if cached copy after
HTTP response
is up-to-date: HTTP/1.0 200 OK <date>
HTTP/1.0 304 Not <data>
Modified
Application Layer 2-43
Chapter 2: outline
2.1 principles of network 2.5 P2P applications
applications 2.6 video streaming and
2.2 Web and HTTP content distribution
2.3 electronic mail networks
• SMTP, POP3, IMAP 2.7 socket programming
2.4 DNS with UDP and TCP

Application Layer 2-44

Electronic mail outgoing
message queue
user mailbox
Three major components: user
agent
 user agents
 mail servers mail user
server agent
 simple mail transfer
protocol: SMTP SMTP mail user
server agent

User Agent SMTP

 a.k.a. “mail reader” SMTP user
agent
 composing, editing, reading mail
server
mail messages user
 e.g., Outlook, Thunderbird, agent
iPhone mail client user
agent
 outgoing, incoming
messages stored on server
Application Layer 2-45
Electronic mail: mail servers
mail servers: user
agent
 mailbox contains incoming
messages for user mail user
server
 message queue of outgoing agent

(to be sent) mail messages SMTP mail user

 SMTP protocol between server agent
mail servers to send email SMTP
messages user
• client: sending mail SMTP
agent
mail
server server
• “server”: receiving mail user
agent
server
user
agent

Application Layer 2-46

Electronic Mail: SMTP [RFC 2821]
 uses TCP to reliably transfer email message from
client to server, port 25
 direct transfer: sending server to receiving
server
 three phases of transfer
• handshaking (greeting)
• transfer of messages
• closure
 command/response interaction (like HTTP)
• commands: ASCII text
• response: status code and phrase
 messages must be in 7-bit ASCI
Application Layer 2-47
Scenario: Alice sends message to Bob
1) Alice uses UA to compose 4) SMTP client sends Alice’s
message “to” message over the TCP
[email protected] connection
2) Alice’s UA sends message 5) Bob’s mail server places the
to her mail server; message message in Bob’s mailbox
placed in message queue 6) Bob invokes his user agent
3) client side of SMTP opens to read message
TCP connection with Bob’s
mail server

1 user mail user

mail agent
agent server server
2 3 6
4
5
Alice’s mail server Bob’s mail server
Application Layer 2-48
Sample SMTP interaction
S: 220 hamburger.edu
C: HELO crepes.fr
S: 250 Hello crepes.fr, pleased to meet you
C: MAIL FROM: <[email protected]>
S: 250 [email protected]... Sender ok
C: RCPT TO: <[email protected]>
S: 250 [email protected] ... Recipient ok
C: DATA
S: 354 Enter mail, end with "." on a line by itself
C: Do you like ketchup?
C: How about pickles?
C: .
S: 250 Message accepted for delivery
C: QUIT
S: 221 hamburger.edu closing connection

Application Layer 2-49

Try SMTP interaction for yourself:
 telnet servername 25
 see 220 reply from server
 enter HELO, MAIL FROM, RCPT TO, DATA, QUIT
commands

above lets you send email without using email client (reader)

Application Layer 2-50

SMTP: final words
 SMTP uses persistent comparison with HTTP:
connections
 HTTP: pull
 SMTP requires message
(header & body) to be in  SMTP: push
7-bit ASCII  both have ASCII
 SMTP server uses command/response
CRLF.CRLF to interaction, status codes
determine end of message
 HTTP: each object
encapsulated in its own
response message
 SMTP: multiple objects
sent in multipart message

Application Layer 2-51

Mail message format

SMTP: protocol for

exchanging email messages header
blank
RFC 822: standard for text line
message format:
 header lines, e.g.,
• To: body
• From:
• Subject:
different from SMTP MAIL
FROM, RCPT TO:
commands!
 Body: the “message”
• ASCII characters only

Application Layer 2-52

Mail access protocols
user
mail access user
SMTP SMTP protocol agent
agent
(e.g., POP,
IMAP)

sender’s mail receiver’s mail

server server

 SMTP: delivery/storage to receiver’s server

 mail access protocol: retrieval from server
• POP: Post Office Protocol [RFC 1939]: authorization,
download
• IMAP: Internet Mail Access Protocol [RFC 1730]: more
features, including manipulation of stored messages on
server
• HTTP: gmail, Hotmail, Yahoo! Mail, etc.

Application Layer 2-53

POP3 protocol
S: +OK POP3 server ready
C: user bob
authorization phase S:
C:
+OK
pass hungry
 client commands: S: +OK user successfully logged on
• user: declare username
• pass: password C: list
S: 1 498
 server responses
S: 2 912
• +OK S: .
• -ERR C: retr 1
transaction phase, client: S:
S:
<message 1 contents>
.
 list: list message numbers C: dele 1
 retr: retrieve message by C: retr 2
number S: <message 1 contents>
 dele: delete S: .
 quit C: dele 2
C: quit
S: +OK POP3 server signing off
Application Layer 2-54
POP3 (more) and IMAP
more about POP3 IMAP
 previous example uses  keeps all messages in one
POP3 “download and place: at server
delete” mode  allows user to organize
• Bob cannot re-read e- messages in folders
mail if he changes  keeps user state across
client sessions:
 POP3 “download-and- • names of folders and
keep”: copies of messages mappings between
on different clients message IDs and folder
 POP3 is stateless across name
sessions

Application Layer 2-55

Question ?
 Suppose the HTML file references 10 very small
pictures (objects) on the same server. Let RTT
denote the RTT between the local host and the
server containing the each object. Neglecting
transmission times, how much time elapses with
a. Non-persistent HTTP with no parallel TCP
connections?
b. Non-persistent HTTP with the browser
configured for 5 parallel connections?
c. Persistent HTTP?

Application Layer 2-56