- Naturalistic language learning : học ngôn ngữ tự nhiên

- Sociolinguistic : thuộc ngôn ngữ xã hội học

- Psycholinguistic : ngôn ngữ tâm lý học
- Distinction = difference
- Domain = field
- Constellations of factors : a group of related feelings or ideas.

 the domains of classroom and naturalistic learning can be distinguished with

reference to such factors as location, participants, topics and purposes

- Dimension = measure = size

- Self-evident = completely clear
- Circumscribe  limit
- Envisage = visualize = imagine = picture (v)
- exceptional cases : trường hợp ngoại lệ
- reverse applies : áp dụng ngược lại
Former : classroom language learning  provide
Latter : naturalistic language learning  a greater range of settings, participants,
topics and purposes.
- Intervention : sự can thiệp
- Classrooms are ideally suited to formal training, while naturalistic settings tend to
give rise to apprenticeship = time of training
- Multifarious = diverse
- Language pedagogy : ngôn ngữ sư phạm

Questions from Ellis and Shintani (2014) – Chapter 1

1. What are the ‘competing claims (tuyên bố cạnh tranh) of behaviourist
(ng theo chủ nghĩa hành vi) and mentalist (nhà tâm lý học) accounts of L2
learning’?
Competing Claims of Behaviourist and Mentalist Accounts of L2
Learning - **Behaviourist Accounts**: Focus on observable
behaviors and external stimuli. They argue that language
learning is a result of habit formation through reinforcement
and imitation. –

**Mentalist Accounts**: Emphasize internal cognitive

processes. They argue that learners possess innate linguistic
 capabilities and that language acquisition is a natural
developmental process influenced by exposure and interaction

2. What evidence is there to support the claims that learners develop an

‘interlanguage’?
Errors**: Systematic errors made by learners (e.g.,
overgeneralization of rules) indicate that they are
developing their own rules and forms. –

**Stabilization**: Interlanguage shows patterns that stabilize

over time, suggesting a progression in language
development. –

**Variation**: Learners demonstrate variability in language

use based on context, indicating a dynamic system
influenced by both linguistic input and cognitive processes.
3. What are the implications of Interlanguage Theory for language
teaching?
At first
Interlanguage theory basically says that when you learn a new language, you don't
jump straight to speaking like a native. Instead, you create your own temporary
language system with its own rules, which is influenced by both your first language
and the language you're learning. This "in-between" language is constantly changing
as you improve.
3 primary implications of Interlanguage Theory
*Focus on Communication**: Teaching should emphasize meaningful
communication rather than just grammatical accuracy. – encourage students
speak more instead of focusing too much on grammar – help them improve
their fluency and speak naturally

**Error Correction**: Understanding that errors are a natural part of the

learning process can inform how teachers approach correction and feedback.
–
Teachers should view learner errors not as failures but as natural and
necessary parts of the learning process. Errors reflect stages in the learner’s
interlanguage development, and correcting them helps guide learners closer
to target language norms

**Input and Interaction**: Providing rich input and opportunities for

interaction can help learners develop their interlanguage more effectively.

Encouraging Active Learning Strategies** -

 **Strategy Development**: Teachers can help learners develop effective
language learning strategies, such as monitoring their own language use,
seeking out opportunities for authentic/true practice, and using
communication strategies to overcome gaps in their knowledge. –

**Promoting Autonomous Learning**: Learners should be encouraged to take

responsibility for their own learning by identifying their strengths and
weaknesses, which aligns with interlanguage's focus on individual language
development
Fossilization

Developmental stages

2. Encouraging Active Learning Strategies** -

**Strategy Development**: Teachers can help learners develop
effective language learning strategies, such as monitoring their own
language use, seeking out opportunities for authentic practice, and
using communication strategies to overcome gaps in their
knowledge. - **Promoting Autonomous Learning**: Learners should
be encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning by
identifying their strengths and weaknesses, which aligns with
interlanguage's focus on individual language developmen
1. **Understanding Learner Errors** - *
*Errors as Learning Indicators**: Teachers should view learner errors
not as failures but as natural and necessary parts of the learning
process. Errors reflect stages in the learner’s interlanguage
development, and correcting them helps guide learners closer to
target language norms. –
**Error Analysis**: Systematic analysis of errors can provide insights
into which areas learners are struggling with and how their native
language might be influencing their second language (L2)
development. ###

2. **Tailoring Instruction** - *

*Focus on Learner Needs**: Teachers can design instruction that

addresses specific interlanguage stages, providing activities and
materials that target the learner’s current proficiency level while
pushing them toward more advanced forms. –
**Customized Feedback**: Effective feedback that considers the
learner's interlanguage can help guide them through the learning
process, offering corrections that are timely and constructive
without overwhelming them with too much correction at once. ###

3. **Addressing Fossilization** -

**Prevention of Fossilization**: Since interlanguage can fossilize,

meaning errors become permanent, teachers must provide
continuous, corrective feedback, especially on recurrent errors.
Encouraging learners to notice gaps between their output and the
target language is crucial in preventing fossilization. –

**Varied Input**: Providing learners with a rich variety of input from

native speakers, authentic materials, and real-life communication
situations helps expose them to correct language patterns and
reduces the risk of fossilization. ###

4. **Encouraging Active Learning Strategies** -

**Strategy Development**: Teachers can help learners develop
effective language learning strategies, such as monitoring their
own language use, seeking out opportunities for authentic
practice, and using communication strategies to overcome gaps
in their knowledge. - **Promoting Autonomous Learning**:
Learners should be encouraged to take responsibility for their
own learning by identifying their strengths and weaknesses,
which aligns with interlanguage's focus on individual language
development. ### 5. **Creating a Low-Anxiety Environment** -
**Comfort with Imperfection**: Interlanguage suggests that
learners are always in a state of flux, so creating a supportive and
low-anxiety classroom environment where learners feel
comfortable making mistakes can enhance language acquisition. -
**Emphasizing Communication Over Perfection**: Teachers can
focus on meaningful communication, allowing learners to practice
and use the language, even if it is not perfect, rather than
emphasizing complete grammatical accuracy at every stage.
### 6. **Gradual Complexity** - **Scaffolded Learning**:
Interlanguage progresses gradually, so teachers should introduce
increasingly complex language structures over time, aligned with
the learner’s current interlanguage stage. - **Form-Focused
Instruction**: While communication is essential, occasional focus
on form (e.g., specific grammar points) can help learners refine
their interlanguage and move closer to native-like proficiency. By
understanding interlanguage as a dynamic and evolving system,
teachers can better support learners through feedback, targeted
instruction, and fostering a learning environment that promotes
growth toward language proficiency.
4. In what ways can ‘output’ (i.e. learner production) also contribute to L2
acquisition?
**Practice and Production**: Output allows learners to
practice language and experiment with new structures,
reinforcing their knowledge. –

**Noticing Gaps**: When learners produce language, they

may notice gaps in their knowledge, prompting further
learning. –

**Feedback**: Engaging in output provides opportunities for

feedback from others, which can enhance learning.

5. The chapter distinguishes two types of language instruction – MFI and

FFI. Give examples of instructional activities characteristic of each type.
What does SLA tell us about the effectiveness of the two types?
MFI vs. FFI –
**MFI (Meaning-Focused Instruction)**: Activities that prioritize
comprehension and communication over explicit grammar
instruction, e.g., role-plays, storytelling, and communicative
games. –

**FFI (Form-Focused Instruction)**: Activities that focus on

specific language forms, e.g., grammar drills, error correction
exercises, and explicit teaching of grammatical rules. –

**Effectiveness**: Research in SLA suggests that a balanced

approach incorporating both MFI and FFI is most effective for
language acquisition, as it addresses both meaning and form.
 6. In what ways can individual difference factors such as aptitude and
motivation impact learning?
**Aptitude**: Learners with high language aptitude may
acquire languages more easily and effectively, showing
better performance in tasks like phonetic discrimination or
grammatical judgment. –

**Motivation**: Highly motivated learners often engage

more deeply with the language, persist through challenges,
and seek out opportunities to practice, leading to better
outcomes. –

**Other Factors**: Personality traits, learning styles, and

cultural background also play significant roles in how
individuals approach language learning.
7. Discuss one or two principles (nguyên tắc) in terms of your own
experience as a learner or teacher.
- Be always dedicated with my students
- Be willing to learn from my students and co-workers
- Provide opportunities for my students to think out of the box and be creative
As a learner, I found that engaging with authentic materials—like
songs, movies, or books—helped me acquire language naturally. For
example, watching movies with subtitles allowed me to grasp the
context and pick up new phrases. As a teacher, I aimed to provide
students with resources that matched their proficiency levels,
encouraging them to explore more challenging materials gradually. I
noticed that when students encountered comprehensible input, their
confidence and interest in learning significantly increased.