SMA 305: COMPLEX ANALYSIS I

Purpose of the Course

To introduce the learner to complex functions, their differentiation and integration.

Expected Learning Outcomes of the Course

By the end of the course, the learner will be able to:
1. Use Cauchy –Reimann equations to determine whether a given complex-valued function is
analytic or not.
2. Apply key integral theorems to perform integration of complex functions.
3. Use the Laurent series expansion to classify singularities of a given complex function.

Course Content (Revised)

Limits, Continuity and differentiability of complex functions. Analytic and elementary complex
functions. Cauchy Riemann equations, Harmonic functions. Mappings by elementary functions.
Integration of complex functions: Cauchy’s integral Theorem, Cauchy-Goursat Theorem. Taylor
series, Laurent Series, Singularities, poles, residues and Cauchy’s residue theorem.
Pre-requisite: SMA 200

Course Assessment
Continuous assessment tests: 30%
Final examination: 70%

Core Reading Materials

1. Brown,J.W, etal. (2013). Complex Variables and Applications. 9th Edition. Mc Graw-Hill,
Singapore.
2. Gamelin, T.W. (2003). Complex Analysis. Springer, New York.
3. Spiegel, M.R etal (2009) . Schaum’s Outline of Complex Variables, 2ed. Mc Graw-Hill
Professional, India.

Recommended Reading Materials

1. A.S.A. Mshimba: Basic Complex Analysis Vol. I, University of Dar es salaam, 1984.
2. J E Marsden & M. Hoffman: Basic Complex Analysis, Freeman & Co., New York, 1972.
 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Functions of a complex variable

Let S be a set of complex number. A function f defined on S is a rule which assigns to each z in
S a complex number w is called the value of f at z. The number w is called the value of f at z and
denoted by f  z  , that is w  f  z  .

The set S is called the domain of definition of f. When the domain of definition is not
mentioned, we agree that the longest possible set is to be taken. Thus if we speak of the function
f  z   1 , the domain is the set of all non-zero complex numbers.
z

Transformation Or Mapping
Suppose that w  u  iv is the value of the function f at z  x  iy i.e. u  iv  f  x  iy  . Then
each of the real numbers u and v depends on the real variables x and y.

That is
u  u  x, y  and v  v  x, y  1)
Therefore, f  z   u  x, y   iv  x, y 
Thus given a point P ( x, y ) in the z-plane, there corresponds a point P ' (u, v) in the w-plane.
The set of equations 1) is called a transformation or a mapping.

Example
1. If f  z    4  5i  z   6  2i  , then

f  x  iy    4  5i  x  iy    6  2i 

  4 x  5 y  6  i 5x  4 y  2

Since f  z   u  iv , then equating real and imaginary parts, we get

u  4 x  5 y  6 , v  5x  4 y  2

If particular, if P 1, 2  , then x  1 , y  2 and the coordinator of P ' are given by

u  4 10  6  12 and v  5  8  2  11

 P (1, 2)
z- plane w- plane
y
v
. P(1,2)
. P (-12,11)
1

x u

Exercise
Let f  z   z 2 , write f  z  in the form u  iv .

Limits
Let f  z  be defined and single-valued in a neighborhood of z  z0 with possible exception of
z  z0 itself. We say that the number L is the limit of f  z  as z approaches z0 and write
lim f  z   L if for any positive number  (however small) we can find some positive number
 (usually depending on  ) such that f  z   L   whenever 0  z  z0  

In such a case we also say that f  z  approaches L as z approaches z0 and write f  z   L as

z  z0 .

Example
iz i
Consider the function f  z   defined on the open disk z  1 . Show that lim f  z   .
2 Z 1 2

Solution
1. We must show that given   0 , we can find  (depending on  ) such that
i
f  z     whenever 0  z  1   .
2
Now
i iz i
f z   
2 2 2
 i  z  1

2

i z 1

2
z 1 
 
2 2
Taking   2 , the required result follows

2. Show that lim  2 x  iy 2   4i.

z 2i

Solution
We must show that given   0 there exist a   0 such that
f  z   4i   whenever 0  z  2i   that is 0  x   y  2  i  

Now,
f  z   4i  2 x  iy 2  4i

 2x  i  y2  4

 2 x  i  y  2  y  2 

If y  2  2 , then

f  z   4i  2 x  i  y  2   2


Therefore choose   and y  2  2
2

z2 1
3. Evaluate lim .
z i z6 1

Solution
z2 1 2 z 2i 1
lim  lim 5   .
z i z  1 z i 6 z
6
6i 3

Continuity
A function f is continuous at a point z0 if all the following conditions are satisfied
1) lim f  z  exists
z  z0
 2) f  z0  exists
3) lim f  z   f  z0 
z  z0

Otherwise it is discontinuous at z  z0

Example
Determine whether f  z  is continuous at z  2i if
 z2  4
 , if z  2i
f  z    z  2i
 3  4i, if z  2i


Solution
z2  4 2z
lim f  z   lim  lim  2  2i   4i
z 2i z  2 i z  2i z 2i 1

Also, f  2i   3  4i , exist.
Now,
lim f  z   f  2i  hence f  z  is not continuous at z  2i
z 2i

We call z0 a removable discontinuity if lim f  z  exists but not equal to f  z0  . By redefining

z  z0

f  z  to be the same as lim f  z  , the function becomes continuous.

z  z0

Example
In the previous example 2i is a removable discontinuity, we can redefine f  2i   4i so that
f  z  is continuous at z  2i .

Definition derivatives
If f  z  is a single-valued in the domain R of the z-plane, the derivative of f  z  is defined as
f  z  z   f  z 
f   z   lim .
z 0 z
The function f  z  is said to be differentiable at z0 when its derivative at f  z  is exists.

Example
Prove that if f  z   z 3  2 z , then f   z   3z 2  2.

Solution
 f  z  z   f  z 
f   z   lim
z 0 z

 z  z   2  z  z    z 3  2 z 
3

 lim
z 0 z

z 3  3z 2 z  3z  z    z   2 z  2z  z 3  2z
2 3

 lim
z 0 z

3z 2 z  3z  z    z   2z
2 3

 lim
z  0 z


 lim 3z 2  3z  z    z   2
z 0
2

 3z 2  2

NB:
All the techniques of differentiation apply to complex valued functions;

Definition (Analytic functions)

If the derivative f   z  exists at all points z of a region R, then f  z  is said to be analytic in R
and is referred to as an analytic function in R or a function analytic in R. The terms regular and
holomorphic are sometimes used as analytic.

Cauchy-Riemann equation
A necessary condition that w  f  z   u  x, y   iv  x, y  is analytic in a region R is that, in R, u
and v satisfy the Cauchy Riemann equations
u v u v
 ,  .
x y y x

The functions u  x, y  and v  x, y  are called conjugate functions.

Proof
For f  z  to be analytic f   z  must exists at every point in R. Also z  x  iy and
z    x  iy   x  iy .
By definition,
f  z  z   f  z 
f  z   lim
z 0 z
 f  x  iy    x  iy    f  x  iy 
 lim
x 0
y 0
  x  iy 

 lim
u  x  x, y  y   i v  x  x, y  y   u  x, y   i v  x, y 
x 0
y 0
x  iy

Case 1 y  0 , x  0

u  x  x, y   i v  x  x, y   u  x, y   i v  x, y  

f   z   lim
x 0 x
u  x  x, y   u  x, y  v  x  x, y   v  x, y 
 lim  i lim
x 0 x x 0 x
u v
 i
x x

Case 2 If x  0 , y  0
u  x, y  y   i v  x, y  y   u  x, y   i v  x, y 
f   z   lim
y 0 iy

u  x, y  y   u  x, y   i  v  x, y  y   v  x, y  
 lim
y 0 iy
u  x, y  y   u  x, y  v  x, y  y   v  x, y 
 lim  lim
y 0 iy y 0 y
1 u v u v
   i 
i y y y y

But f  z  cannot be analytic unless the two limits are identical

u v u v
Therefore   i  i  .
x x y y

Equating the real and imaginary parts, we obtain

u v v u
 and 
x y x y
or
u v u v
 and 
x y y x
Example
1. Show that f  z   e y eix is analytic

Solution
f  z   e y eix  e y  cos x  i sin x 
Therefore u  e  y cos x and v  e  y sin x
u u
 e  y sin x ,  e  y cos x
x y
and
v v
 e y sin x ,  e  y cos x
y x

u v u v
Therefore  and 
x y y x
2. Determine whether f ( z)  z 2  2iz  z is analytic.
Solution
Let z  x  iy, then
f ( x  iy )  ( x  iy )2  2i ( x  iy )  x  iy
  x2  y 2   i 2 xy  2 xi  2 y  x  iy
  x2  y 2  2 y  x   i  2 xy  2 x  y 
Therefore
u   x2  y 2  2 y  x  and v   2 xy  2 x  y 
Now,
ux  2 x  1 u y  2 y  2
and

vx  2 y  2 vy  2 x  1
 ux  vy .
Therefore f ( z ) is not analytic.

Harmonic Functions

Definition (Harmonic Functions)

If u  x, y  is harmonic, then it satisfies Laplace’s equation
  2u  2 v
 2u    0.
x 2 y 2
Theorem
If a function f  z   u ( x, y)  i v( x, y) is analytic in a domain R, then the component functions
u and v are harmonic.

Definition (Harmonic Conjugate)

If f  z   u  iv is analytic v is called the harmonic conjugate of u.

Example

Given that u  x, y   y 3  3x 2 y , show that u is harmonic and find a harmonic conjugate

v  x, y  .
Solution
a)
du d 2u
 6 xy  6 y
dx , dx 2
and
u d 2u
 3 y 2  3x 2  6y
y , dy 2
Thus,
 2u  2u
  6 y  6 y  0.
x 2 y 2
Hence u is harmonic.

b) If v is the conjugate of u, then the function f  z   u  iv is analytic and hence satisfies the
Cauchy Riemann equation;
Therefore
v u
  6 xy and
y x
v u
  3x 2  3 y 2
x y
Thus
v   6 xy dy  3xy 2  F  x  , where F  x  is a real values function of x.

But already
 v
 3x 2  3 y 2 (1)
x
Differentiating v obtained with respect to x is
v
 3 y 2  F   x  (2)
x
Comparing (1) and (2) we get
F   x   3x 2  F  x    3x 2 dx  x3  C where C is constant
Hence v  x, y   3xy 2  x3  C where C is constant

Example
a) Prove that u  e x  x sin y  y cos y  is harmonic
b) Find v such that f  z   u  iv is analytic

Solution
a) u  e x  x sin y  y cos y   xe x sin y  ye x cos y
u
 e  x sin y  xe  x sin y  ye  x cos y
x
 2u
 e x sin y  e x sin y  xe x sin y  e  x y cos y
x 2
 2e x sin y  xe x sin y  ye x cos y 1)
u
 xe x cos y  e x  cos y  y sin y 
y 2

 xe x cos y  e x cos y  ye x sin y

 2u
  xe x sin y  e x sin y  e  x sin y  ye  x cos y
y 2
  xe x sin y  2e x sin y  ye x cos y 2)
Adding 1) add 2) gives
 2u  2u
 0
x 2 y 2
Hence u is harmonic

b) u  xe x sin y  ye x cos y

Since f  z  is analytic from Cauchy-Riemann equations,
v u v u
 and 
y x x y
 Therefore
v
 e x sin y  xe x sin y  ye  x cos y
y
So
v    e x sin y  xe x sin y  ye x cos y  dy

 e x cos y  xe x cos y  e x  y cos y dy

Using integration by parts to integrate  y cos y dy ;

dv1
Let u1  y and  cos y , then
dy
du1
1 and v1   cos y dy  sin y
dy
Therefore
 y cos y dy  y sin y   sin y dy
 y sin y  cos y  F  x 
Therefore
v   e x cos y  xe x cos y  e x y sin y  e x cos y  F  x 
 xe x cos y  e x y sin y  F  x  , where F  x  is an arbitrary real functions of x.
Also by Cauchy Riemann equations,
v u
    xe x cos y  e x cos y  ye  x sin y 
x y
 e x cos y  xe x cos y  ye x sin y 3)
But v  xe x cos y  e x y sin y  F  x  .
Therefore
dv
 e x cos y  xe  x cos y  e  x y sin y  F  x  . 4)
dx

Equating 3) and 4) gives,

F  x   0  F  x   c , where c is a constant.

Therefore
v  xe x cos y  e x y sin y  c.
Exercise
Show that u  x, y   2 x  x3  3xy 2 is harmonic and hence find a harmonic conjugate v  x, y 
 ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS
Here we consider various elementary functions studied in the calculus of real variables and
define corresponding functions of a complex variable.

1. The Exponential function

The exponential function is defined by
f  z   e z  e x iy  e x eiy
 e x  cos y  i sin y 
 e x cos y  ie x sin y
where e = 2.71828… is the natural base of logarithms.

Properties
1) f  z   e z is analytic
Proof
e z  e x cos y  i e x sin y
So u  x, y   e x cos y and v  x, y   e x sin y
u u
 e x cos y ,  e x sin y
x y
and
v v
 e x sin y ,  e x cos y
x y
u v u v
Hence  , 
x y y x
Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied, hence f  z  is analytic.

2) If a is a real and positive number, then a z  e z ln a

Proof
Let w  a z , then taking natural logs,
ln w  ln  a z   z ln a
log e w  z ln a
Therefore w  e z ln a that is a z  e z ln a

3) e z  e x and arg  e z   y
 Proof
Modulus
e z  e x iy  e x  cos y  i sin y 
Therefore
e z  e x  cos y  i sin y 

 e x  cos y  i sin y 

 ex cos 2 y  sin 2 y

 ex 1
 ex
Therefore e z  e x
Argument
f  z   e z  e x  cos y  ie x sin y   e x cos y  ie x sin y

 e x sin y 
Therefore arg e z  tan 1  x   tan  tan y   y
1

 e cos y 
4) e z  2 i  e z
Proof
e z  2  i  e z e 2 i
 e z  cos 2  i sin 2 
 e z 1  0i 
 ez
Therefore the exponential functions is periodic with a pure imaginary period 2 i .

5) e z1 . e z2  e z1  z2
Proof
L.H.S
ez1 . ez2  e 1
x iy1 
. e
x2 iy2 
 e x1 . eiy1 . e x2 . eiy2
 e x1  cos y1  i sin y1  . e x2  cos y2  i sin y2 
 e x1  x2 cos y1 cos y2  i cos y1 sin y2  i sin y1 cos y2  sin y1 sin y2 
 e x1  x2  cos y1 cos y2  sin y1 sin y2   i  sin y1 cos y2  cos y1 sin y2 
 e x1  x2 cos  y1  y2   i sin  y1  y2 
R.H.S
 e z1  z2  e 1
x iy1   x2 iy2 

 e 1
x  x2 i  y1  y2 

 y1 y2 
 e x1  x2 . ei
 e x1  x2 cos  y1  y2   i sin  y1  y2 
Hence e z1 . e z2  e z1  z2

e z1
6) Derive z2
e
1
7) e 0  1 and  e z
ez
8) e 
z n
 e nz

9) elog z  z

Example
1) Find all values of z such that e z  2
Solution
e z  2 implies that 2  2 and arg  2   1800
e z  2  cos1800  i sin1800 
That is ez  2e 2 k i , k = 0, 1 ,…
 ln  e z   ln  2e
  2 k i


ln 2  i   2 k  , k  0, 1, 2,...
2) Solve the equation e 2 z 1  1
1  12  02  1, arg1  0
e2 z 1  1 cos 0  i sin 0 
 e
0 2 k i
 e2 ki , k  0, 1,...
Therefore e2 z 1  e2 ki
 2z 1  2 ki
2z  1  2 ki
1
 z    ki, k  0, 1,...
2

Exercise
 2  i
 1 i 
1. Show that e 4
 e 
 2
2. Find all values of z such that e z  1  3i
3. Prove that the function e z is not analytic anywhere on the entire complex plane.

Trigonometric functions
From the formulas
eix  cos x  i sin x , eix  cos x  i sin x,
Adding gives
eix  e x
eix  eix  2 cos x  cos x 
2
Subtracting gives
eix  eix
eix  eix  2i sin x  sin x  ,
2i
for every real number x. It is therefore natural to define the sine and cosine functions of a
complex variable z by the equations,
eiz  e iz
sin z 
2i
eiz  e iz
cos z
2
The sine and cosine functions are analytic since they are a linear combination of analytic
function e iz and e  iz .

Similarly
sin z eiz  e  iz
tan z  
cos z i  eiz  e  iz 

cos z i  e  e 
iz  iz

cot z   iz  iz
sin z e e
1 z
sec z   iz
cos z e  e iz
1 2i
cos ecz   iz iz
sin z e  e
The following identities hold
sin 2 z  cos 2 z  1 1  tan 2 z  sec 2 z
1  cot 2 z  cos ec 2 z
sin   z    sin z, cos   z   cos z, tan   z    tan z
sin  z1  z2   sin z1 cos z2  cos z1 sin z2
cos  z1  z2   cos z1 cos z2  sin z1 sin z2

Proof
By routine computation.

The logarithmic Function

If z  e w , then, we have w  ln z  logez called the natural logarithm of z. Thus the natural
logarithm is the inverse of the exponential function and can be defined by
w  ln z  ln r  i   2 k  , k  0, 1, 2
where z  r and arg z   .
To see this let z  x  iy have polar representation z  rei , then
ln z  ln  rei 
 ln r  ln  ei 
 ln r  i
Since sine and cosine are periodic, then
ln z  ln r  i   2 k  , k  0, 1, 2,...
Hence ln z is a multiple-values function. When k=0, we obtain the principle-value or principle
branch; w  ln r  i .

Properties of logarithms
1. eln z  z, z0

Proof
ln  x  iy   
ln rei
eln z  e e
 e
ln r  i 

 eln r . e i
 rei  z
2. loge  z1 z2   ln z1  ln z2
z 
3. log e  1   ln z1  ln z2
 z2 

Example
1. Obtain all the values of ln  
3  i and find the principal value.
 Solution:

 3   1  4  2
2
Let z  3  i, then r 
2

and
 1  11
arg z  tan 1    360  30  330  6 
0 0 0

 3
Therefore ln z  ln r    2 k  i, k  0, 1
 11 
 ln 2     2 k  i, k  0, 1, 2,...
6 
11
Principal value is obtained when k = 0, ln z  ln 2  i
6

Inverse Trigonometric functions

If z  sin w , then w  sin 1 z is called the inverse of sin z . Others are cos 1 z , tan 1 z , cot 1 z
etc.
The inverse trigonometric functions can be expressed in terms of natural logarithms as follows;
1

1. sin 1 z  ln iz  1  z 2
i

Proof
Let sin 1 z  w , then sin w  z
eiw  e iw
z
2i
eiw  e iw  2iz
e 2iw  1  2izeiw
Therefore
e 2iw  2izeiw  1  0 or
e 
iw 2
 2izeiw  1  0 , which is quadratic in eiw

2iz   2iz  4
2

Therefore e  iw

2
2iz  4  4 z 2

2
 iz  1  z 2
Taking natural logs on both sides

  
ln  eiw   ln iz  1  z 2  ln iz  1  z 2 
Therefore iw  ln iz   1 z  2
 1
Therefore w  ln iz  1  z 2
i
 
1
Therefore sin 1 z  ln iz  1  z 2
i
 
1  1  iz 
2. tan 1 z  ln  
2i  1  iz 
Proof
Let tan 1 z  w , then tan w  z.
eiw  e  iw
Thus, z
i  eiw  e  iw 

Therefore eiw  eiw  zi  eiw  eiw   zieiw  izeiw

1 iz
eiw  iw
 izeiw  iw
e e
Therefore  eiw   1  iz  eiw   iz
2 2

Therefore  eiw   iz  eiw   1  iz

2 2

1  iz   eiw 
2
 1  iz
1  iz
  eiw  
2

1  iz
Taking natural logs on both sides,
 1  iz 
ln  eiw   ln 
2

 1  iz 
 1  iz 
Therefore 2iw  ln  
 1  iz 
1  1  iz 
 w  ln  
2i  1  iz 
1  1  iz 
So tan 1 z  ln  
2i  1  iz 

Exercise
Show that
1
a) cos 1 z  ln z  z 2  1
i
 
1  z i 
b) cot 1 z  ln  
2i  z  i 
 1  i  z 2 1 
c) cos ec 1 z  ln  
i  z 

1  1 1 z2 
d) sec1 z  ln  
i  z 


Example
Find all the roots of the equation cos z  2.
z  cos1  2 
1

 ln 2 
i
22  1 
1

 ln 2 
i
3 
1

 ln 2 
i

3 e 2 ki

1
 
 ln 2 
i
 
3 2 ki

 i ln 2  3   2 k

Hyperbolic functions
The hyperbolic sine and the hyperbolic cosine of a complex variable are defined as they are with
a real variable; that is
e z  e z e z  e z
sinh z  , cosh z 
2 2
sinh z e z  e z
tanh z  
cosh z e z  e z
Since e z and e  z are entire, it follows that the hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine are analytic

Identities
cosh 2 z  sinh 2 z  1
sinh  z1  z2   cosh z1 sinh z2  sinh z1 cosh z2
cosh  z1  z2   cosh z1 cosh z2  sinh z1 sinh z2
sinh   z    sinh z
cosh   z   cosh z
Also
sinh  iz   i sin z sin  iz   i sinh z
cosh  iz   cos z cos  iz   cosh z

Example
Show that
sinh z  sinh x cos y  i cosh x sin y

Proof
e z  e z
sinh z 
2
  x  iy 
e x iy  e e x . eiy  e  x . e  iy
 
2 2
e x . eiy e x . e  yi
 
2 2
e x  cos y  i sin y  e  x  cos y  i sin y 
 
2 2
e cos y e cos y  e sin y e  x sin y 
x x x
  i  
2 2  2 2 
 e x  e x   e x  e x 
 cos y    i sin y  
 2   2 
 cos y sinh x  i sin y cosh x

Exercise
Prove that
1. cosh z  cosh z cos y  i sinh x sin y
2. sin z  sin x cosh y  i cos x sinh y
3. cos z  cos x cosh y  i sin x sinh y

Inverse Hyperbolic functions

These functions are defined as follow;

1. sinh 1 z  ln z  z 2  1 
2. cosh 1 z  ln  z  z2 1
1  1 z 
3. tanh 1 z  ln  
2  1 z 
1  z 1
4. coth 1 z  ln  
2  z 1 
  1 z2 1 
1
5. cos ech z  ln  
 z 
 
 1 1 z2 
6. sec h 1 z  ln  
 z 
 
Proof
Similar to that of inverse trigonometric functions

Complex Exponents
If c is any complex number, then z c is a complex number defined by z c  ec ln z .
Since
Let z c  w , then taking natural logarithms on both sides gives
ln w  ln  z c   c ln z
Therefore log ew  c ln z
So that w  ec ln z
i.e. z c  eln z .

Example
1. Find the principal value of i i

i i  ei ln i but i  1, arg i 
2
  
 2  k i 
2
i ln 1 e 
Therefore i  e i  

   2  k  i 
i ln  e 2  
 
e  

 
i   2 k  i
e 2 

 
   2 k 
e 2 
, k  0, 1, 2,...
Principal value is obtained when k = 0,


ii  e 2

2. Determine all the values of 1  i  .

i

1  i  e
i ln 1i 
i

1 
1  i  2, arg 1  i   tan 1   
1 4
    
 2 k  i
i ln  2e 4  
 
Therefore 1  i   e
i  

   
 2  k  i
i ln 2  4  
 
e  

 
   2 k 
e i ln 2
.e 4 

 

   
   2 k 
e 4  cos ln 2  i sin ln 2 
 

3. Find 1 2
Solution
1 2  e 2 ln1
1  1 and arg 1  0
Thus
2 ln 1e
02  k  i 

1 2
e 

e

2 ln e 
2 k i

2  2 k i 
e
2 k
 ei 2

 cos 2 2 k  i sin 2 2 k   
Exercise
 3
 
 i 
i
Find the principal value of (i) ans e 2 or e 2

i
2i 
(ii) ans e
 MAPPING BY ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS
Here we shall see how various curves and regions are mapped by elementary analytic functions.

a) Linear Transformation
The transformation w  az  b , where a and b are complex constants is called a linear
transformation.

A general linear transformation is a combination of a rotation and an expansion or contraction

followed by a translation.

Now, given f  z   bz  c , then this represents an enlargement with scale factor k  b centre
(0,0) followed by rotation centre (0,0) though angle   arg b and then lastly followed by a
translation given by
 c1 
  where c1 = real part of c, c2 = imaginary part c.
 c2 

Example
Let f  z   3z and consider a triangle OPQ in the z-plane with vertices at O(0,0), P (2,0),
Q(0, 2). Map angle OPQ with f  z 

Solution
Let z  x  iy , then
w  f  z   3  x  iy   3x  i3 y
Therefore
u  x, y   3x 
 transformation equations
v  x, y   3 y 
O  0,0   O  0,0 
P  2,0   P  6,0 
Q  0, 2   Q  0,6 
 w- plane
z - plane
v Q' (0, 6)
y Q(0, 2)
f (z) = 3z
.
. Points wide are mapped
inside

.(3,3)
.(1,1) .
. x O' (0, 0) P' (6, 0)
u
O P (2, 0)

b = 3 + oi

Scale factor is k  3  3

 
Angle of rotation is   tan 1 b  tan 1 0 3  0

0
Translation is given by  
0 .
Therefore f (z) is an enlargement with scale factor 3 centre (0, 0), followed by rotation centre
0
(0,0) through angle   0 then followed by a translation given by  
0

b) Consider the same triangle with f  z    3i  z  2  3i.

Solution
f  z   3i  x  iy   2  3i
 3ix  3 y  2  3i
 3 y  2  i  3x  3
Therefore
u  2  3y
v  3x  3

O  0,0   O  2, 3
P  2, 0   P  2,3
Q  0, 2   Q  4, 3
 w- plane
z - plane
v
3
.
. Q (0,2) 2
P' (2,3)

. x -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 2
u
O (0,0) P (2,0)

. -2
.
Q' (-4,-3) -3 O' (2,-3)
b = 3i = 0+3i -4

Therefore enlargement factor is k  b  3i  3 angle of rotation is   arg 3i   2

2
Translation is given by   .
 3 

Exercise
Find the image of the square in the z-pane under the transformation f  z   Bz  C where
B  3  4i and C  2  3i given the vertices as O (0,0), P (1,0), Q (0,2), R (1,2)
Repeat using the transformation f  z   1  i  z  2  i

Fixed points or invariant points

A fixed point of a transformation w  f  z  is a point z0 such that f  z0   z0 .

Example
1) Find the fixed points of f  z   z 2 .

Solution
If z is a fixed point, then f  z   z
z2  z
z 2  z  z  z  1  0  z  0 or z = 1.
 3 z  10
2) Find the fixed points of f  z  
z 1
Solution
3z  10
z
z 1
z  z  3z  10
2

z 2  2 z  10  0
2  4  40 2  6i
z 
2 2
z1  1  3i and z1  1  3i

Exercise
2z  5
Find the fixed or invariant points of f  z  
z4

Inverse
This is the function defined by
f z  1 .
z

Since z  x  iy , then

f  z   f  x  iy  
1

 x  iy   x  iy
x  iy  x  iy  x  iy  x 2  y 2
x iy
  2
x y
2 2
x  y2
Therefore
x y
u , v 2
x y 2
2
x  y2
Equivalently,
1 1 u  iv u v
Since x  iy  z    2 2  2 2  i 2 2 , then
w u  iv u  v u v u v
u v
x 2 2 , y 2 2
u v u v

Properties
1. f z  1 maps any point inside the unit circle outside the unit circle
z
x y
u , v 2
x y
2 2
x  y2
 . .

 1 2 , 0   2, 0 which is outside the circle

2. Show f  z   1 z maps the line x  k , where k is a non-zero constant onto a circle.

Solution
1 x  iy x iy
f  z   2  2  2
z x y 2
x y 2
x  y2
Therefore
u v
x  2 2 and y  2 2
u v u v
Therefore the image of line x  k is
u
k
u  v2
2

Therefore u  ku 2  kv 2
ku 2  u  kv 2  0
u
u 2   v2  0
k
Completing the squares
u
   
2 2
u2    1  v2   1
k 2k 2k
u
 
2
u2    1  v2  1 2
k 2 k 4k
Factorizing,

 u  1 2k 
2
 v2  1 ,
4k 2
which is a circle centre 1  2k 
, 0 and radius r  1
2k .

Example
If x = 2 with f  z   1 z , then
1 x  iy x iy
f  z   2  2  2
z x y 2
x y 2
x  y2
Therefore
u v
x  2 2 and y  2 2
u v u v
Therefore
u
2
u  v2
2

 u  2u 2  2v 2
2u 2  u  2v 2  0
u
u 2   v2  0
2
Completing the squares
u
   
2 2
u2    1  v2   1
2 4 4
u
 
2
u2    1  v2  1
2 4 16
Factorizing,

u  14 
2
 v2  1 ,
16

 
which is a circle centre 1 4 , 0 and radius r  1 4 .

3. Find the image of the circle z  1  1 under the mapping f ( z )  1 z .

Solution
x  iy x iy
f  z  2  2  2
x y 2
x y 2
x  y2

Therefore
x y
u , v 2
x y
2 2
x  y2
Equivalently,
u v
x 2 2 , y 2 2
u v u v
If z  1  1 , then
x  iy  1  x  1  iy  1
Therefore
 x 1  y2  1
2

x2  2 x  1  y 2  1
x2  2x  y 2  0
Therefore the image of z  1  1 is,
2 2
 u   u   v 
 2 2   2 2 2    2 2   0 ,
u v  u v  u v 
u 2  v2 2u
 0
u 
2 2 u  v2
2
2
v
1 2u
 2 2 0
u v u v
2 2

1  2u  0
1
 u  i.e. a line in the w-plane
2
Linear Fractional Transformations
Definition: The linear fractional transformation (or bilinear or mobius transformation) is a
mapping of the form
az  b
w  T z  ,
cz  d
where ad  bc  0 and a, b, c, d .
When c  0 , it is simply a linear transformation.

Definition(Cross Ratio): If z1 , z2 , z3 and z4 are distinct, then the quantity

 z4  z1  z2  z3 
 z2  z1  z4  z3 
is called the cross ratio of z1 , z2 , z3 and z4 .
There is one LFT that maps any three distinct points z1 , z2 , z3 on the z-plane to three distinct
w1 , w 2 , w 3 of the w-plane. To get this LFT, simply equate the cross ratios of z1 , z2 , z3 , z and
w1 , w 2 , w 3 , w ;
  w  w1  w2  w3    z  z1  z2  z3  .
 w2  w1  w  w3   z2  z1  z  z3 

If one point is at say w2 is at infinity, then the factors containing w2 reduce to 1 for
 w  w1  w2  w3    z  z1  z2  z3 
 w2  w1  w  w3   z2  z1  z  z3 
 w3 
 w  w1  1  
  w2 

 z  z1  z2  z3 
 w1   z2  z1  z  z3 
1    w  w3 
 w2 
Now,
w3 w
 0 as w2   and also 1  0 as w2   .
w2 w2
Thus
 w  w1   z  z1  z2  z3 

 w  w3   z2  z1  z  z3 

Example
1. Find the linear fractional transformation that maps z1  1, z2  0 and z3  1 onto
w1  i, w2   and w3  1 respectively.
Solution:
Equating the cross ratios we obtain,

Recall:
 w  w1  w2  w3   z  z1  z2  z3 

 w2  w1  w  w3   z2  z1  z  z3 
Now,
 w  i  w2  1  z  1 0  1   z  1

 w2  i  w  1  0  1 z  1   z  1
Divide numerator and denominator by w2
 1 
 w  i  1  
 1 z
w2 

 i  1 z
1    w  1
 w2 
 1   i 
Letting w2   , we get 1    1 and 1    1 .
 w2   w2 
Therefore,
w  i 1 z
 .
w 1 1 z
Now, making w the subject,
 w  i 1  z    w  11  z 
 w  wz  i  iz  w  wz 1 z
2 zw  z  1  i  iz
 z 1  i    1  i 
z 1  i    1  i 
 w ,
2z
2. Find the linear fractional transformation that maps z1  0, z2  i, z3  1 to
w1  i, w2  1, w3  0 respectively.
Solution:
Equating the cross ratios,
 w  w1  w2  w3    z  z1  z2  z3 
 w2  w1  w  w3   z2  z1  z  z3 
Therefore,
 w  i 1  0  z  0 i  1

1  i  w  0   i  0  z  1

 w  i   z  i  1
w 1  i  i  z  1
We next make w the subject of the formula,
 w  i   z  i  1  i  z 1  i
 
w 1  i  i  z  1 i z  1
w  i  z 2z
 1  i 1  i  =
w z 1 z 1

wi 2z

w z 1
 2 zw  ( w  i )( z  1)  wz  w  iz  i

zw  w  iz  i
 w  z  1  iz  i
iz  i
 w .
z 1

Exercise
1. A square S in the z-plane has vertices at (0, 0), (1, 0), (0, 1) and (1,1). Determine the region
in the w-plane into which S is mapped under the transformation
 i) w  z2
1
w
ii) z 1
2. Find a bilinear transformation which maps points;
i) z  2, i, 2 onto w  1, i, 1 respectively
ii) z1  , z2  i, z3  0 onto w1  0, w2  i, w3   respectively
 COMPLEX INTEGRATION AND CAUCHY’S THEOREM

Complex line integrals

Let f  z  be continuous at all points of a curve C which we shall assume has a finite length i.e.
C is rectifiable curve.

Subdivide C into n parts by means of points z0 , z2 , , zn1 , chosen arbitrary, and call
a  z0 , b  zn . On each ark joining zk 1 to zk where k = 1, 2 , , n choose a point k. Form
the sum
Sn  f 1  z1  a   f 2  z2  z1   ...  f n  b  zn1  1)
On writing zk  zk 1  zk , this becomes
n n
S n   f 1  zk  zk 1    f  k  zk 2)
k 1 k 1

Taking limit as z k  0 , we have

b n

 f  z  dz  lim
Z k 0
 f   z
i 1
k k 3)
a

Or simply
 f  z  dz
Equation (3) is called complex line integral or briefly line integral of f  z  along curve C.

NB
This integral does not represent area but a complex number.
Connection between complex and Real line integral
If f  z   u  x, y   iv  x, y  the complex line integral 3) can be expressed in terms of real line
integrals as follows;
 f  z  dz   u  x, y   iv  x, y   d  x  iy 
C C

   u  iv  dx  idy 
C

  udx  iudy  ivdx  vdy

C

  udx  vdy  i  udy  vdx 

C

  udx  vdy  i  udy  vdx 4)

C C

Real line integrals

Consider the real line integral  P  x, y  dx  Q  x, y  dy where if C is a smooth curve and has
C

parametric equations x    t  , y    t  where t1  t  t2 , then

t2

 P  x, y  dx  Q  x, y  dy   P   t  ,  t     t  dt  Q   t  ,  t    t  dt
C t1
6)

Example
 2,4
   2 y  x  dx   3x  y  dy
2
Evaluate along
0,3

a) The parabola x  2t , y  t 2  3
b) The straight lines from (0,3) to (2,3) and then from (2,3) to (2,4)
c) A straight line from (0,3) to (2,4)

Solution
a) x and y are in parametric form, therefore by equation .The points (0,3) and (2,4) on the
parabolic corresponds to
x  0, t  0, y  3, t0
x  2, t  1, y  4, t 1
Also
dx dy
 2  dx  2dt and  2t  dy  2tdt
dt dt

Substituting, the integral becomes

 1
 2,4
   2 y  x  dx   3x  y  dy    6t  6  2dt   6t  t 2  3 2tdt
2 2
0,3
0
1 1
  12t 2  12  dt   12t 2  2t 3  6t  dt
0 0
1
1 1
 4t  12t  4t  t 4  3t 2
3 3
0 2 0

1 33
 4  12  4   3 
2 2

b) i) Along the straight line from (0,3) to (2,3) we have,

y = 3, dy = 0, 0 x2
Therefore the integral becomes,
2 2

  6  x2  dx  3x  3 dy    6  x2  dx  3x  3 0
x 0 0
2
   6  x 2 dx
0
2
x3
 6x 
3 0

8 44
  12 
3 3
ii) Along the straight line from (2, 3) to (2,4), we have
x  2 , dx = 0, 3  y  4
Therefore, the integral becomes
4 4

  4  2 y  dx   6  y  dy    6  y  dy
3 3

4
y2
 6y 
2 3

 24  8  18  9
2
5

2
44 5 103
Then the required value is  
3 2 6
c) Equation of the line joining (0,3) and (2,4) is
2y  x  6
 i.e. x  2 y  6

Therefore dx = 2dy
When x = 0, y = 3 and x = 2, y = 4
Therefore, the integral becomes

 
4 4
2 y   2 y  6  dx   5 y  18  dy    2 y  4 y 2  24 y  36  2dy   5 y  18  dy
2

y 3 3

 
4
   2 y  4 y 2  24 y  36  2dy   5 y  18 dy
3
4
  4 y  8 y 2  48 y  72  5 y  18dy
3
4
  8 y 2  39 y  54 dy
3
4
8 39 2 97
 y3  y  54 y 
3 2 3 6
1
The result can also be obtained by using y   x  6
2
2. Evaluate  z dt from z = 0 to z = 4 + 2i along the curve C given by (a)
C
z  t 2  it

(b) The line from z = 0 to z = 2i and the line from z = 2i to z = 4 + 2i.

Solution
a) z  t 2  it , thus dz   2t  i  dt
When z = 0, t = 0
When z = 4 + 2i, then 4 + 2i = t2 + it  t=2

Therefore the integral becomes,

 z dz   t  it  d  t 2  it 
2

C t 0
2
   t 2  it   2t  i  dt
0
2
  2t 3  it 2  2it 2  tdt
0
 2 2
1 4 t3 t2
  2t  it  t dt  t  i 
3 2

0
2 3 2 0

8
 10  i
3
b) The given line integral is equal to

C
 z dz    x  iy  d  x  iy 
C

   x  iy  dx  idy 
C

  xdx  ixdy  iydx  ydy

C

   xdx  ydy   i  xdy  ydx 

C

The line from z = 0 to z = 2i is the same as the line from (0,0) to (0,2), we have
x = 0, dx = 0, 0  y  2
Therefore the integral becomes,
2 2

  xdx  ydy   i  xdy  ydx    ydy

y 0 0

2
y2
 2
2 0
The line from z = 2i to z 4 + 2i, is the same as the line from (0, 2 to (4, 2), so we have
y = 2, dy = 0, 0  x  4
4 4 4
x2
x0 xdx  i 0 2dx  2  i  2 x  0
4

= 8 – 8i
Therefore the required value is 2 + 8 – 8i = 10 – 8i

Properties of Integral
1.   f  z   g  z  dz   f  z  dz   g  z  dz
C C C

2.  Af  z  dz  A f ( z )dz where A is any constant

C C
b a
3.  f  z  dz   f  z  dz
a b
b m b
4.  f  z  dz   f  z  dz   f  z  dz where points a, b, m are on C.
a a m
5.  f  z  dz  ML where f  z   M i.e. M is an upper bound of f  z  on C, and L is the
c

length of C.
All the techniques of integration apply to complied valued functions.

Example
 z dz
2
Evaluate where C1 is the line segment OB from z = 0 to z = 2 + i.
C1

Solution
2i 2i
z3
 z dz   z dz 
2 2

C1 0
3 0

2  i
3


3
8  3  4  i  3  2  i 2  i3

3
8  12i  6  i

3
2  11i 2 11i
  
3 3 3
Curves
If   t  and   t  are real function of the real variable t assumed continuous is t1  t  t2 , the
parametric equations
z  x  iy    t   i  t   z  t  define a continuous curve in the z-plane joining points a  z  t1 
and b  z  t2  .
If t1  t2 while z  t1   z  t2  i.e a = b the end points coincide than the curve is said to be closed.
A closed curve which does not intersect itself anywhere is called a simple closed curve.
If   t  and   t  and thus z  t  have continuous derivatives in t1  t  t2 , the curve is often
called a smooth curve or arc. A curve which is composed of a finite number of smooth arc is
called a piecewise smooth curve.
Simply and Multiply connected Regions
A region R is called simply connected if any simple closed curve which lies in R can be shrunk
to a point without leaving R. A region which is not simply-connected is called multiply
connected.

Recall (Green’s theorem)

Let P  x, y  and Q  x, y  be continuous and have continuous partial derivative in a region R and
on its boundary C. Then Green’s theorem states
  Q x 
 P  x, y  dx  Q  x, y  dy    x  y  dxdy
C R

Cauchy’s Theorem/ The Cauchy-Gousat Theorem

Let f  z  be analytic and has continuous derivatives in a region R and on its boundary C. Then

 f  z  dz  0.
C

Proof
Assume f  z   u  iv that has continuous derivatives. Then since f  z  is analytic, it follows
from Cauchy-Riemann equations that the partial derivatives
u v v u
 and 
x y x y
are continuous inside and on C.
Thus Green’s Theorem can be applied and we have,
 f ( z)dz   u  iv  dx  idy 
C C

  udx  vdy  i  vdx  udy

C C

 v u   u v 
     dxdy      dxdy  0  i 0  0.
R 
x y  R 
x y 

Example
If C is a simple closed curve then
 dz  0 ,  z dz  0 ,  z dz  0
2

C C C

Theorem (Cauchy-Goursat Theorem for Multiply Connected Region)

Let f  z  be analytic in a region R bounded by two simple closed curve C1 and C2 and also on
C1 and C2. Then
 f ( z )dz  
C1 C2
f ( z )dz ,

where are both C1 and C2 traversed in positive sense relative to their interior.

Proof
Exercise
Example
Evaluate
dz
C z  a , where C is any simple closed curve and
a) z  a is outside C
b) z  a is inside C

Solution:
1
a) If z  a is outside C, then f ( z )  is analytic inside and on C. Hence by Cauchy’s
za
Theorem,
dz
 z a  0.
C

b) Suppose z  a is inside C and let  be a circle of radius  with centre at z  a , so that 

lies inside C. This can be done because since z  a is an interior point.
Then by Cauchy-Goursat Theorem for multiply connected region,

dz dz
 za   za
C 
1)

Now on  , z  a   or z  a  rei , where 0    2 . Substituting z  a  re i and

dz  i ei d , in equation 1) we get,
2
dz dz i ei d
 z  a  z  a 0 a   ei  a
C
 

2
i ei
 
0
 ei
d

2
 i  d =2 i.
0

Example
Evaluate
dz
C z 2  4 ,
where C : z  1 .
Solution:
1
Let f ( z )  . Then f ( z ) fails to be analytic if
z 4
2
 z 2  4  0  z  2i .
Since z  2i are outside C, then by Cauchy-Goursat Theorem,
dz
C z 2  4  0.
 CAUCHY’S INTEGRAL FORMULA

Theorem (Cauchy’s Integral Formula)

If f  z  is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C and z = a is any point inside C, then
1 f  z
f a   dz ,
2 i C
za
where C is traversed in the positive sense.

Proof
f  z
The function is analytic inside and on C except at the point z = a. By a previous theorem,
za
f  z f  z

C
za
dz  

za
dz, 1)

where we can choose  as a circle of radius  with centre at a. Then the equation of  is
z  a   or z  a   ei , where 0    2 . Substituting z  a   ei , dz  i ei d , in equation
1) we get,
f  z  dz 2 f  a   e  i e d 
i i

 z  a  0 a   ei  a
2
f  a   ei  i ei d 
 0
 ei
2
 i  f  a   ei  d


Thus
 f  z 2

 dz  i  f  a   ei  d 2)
C
za 0

Taking the limit of both sides of 2) as   0 and making use of continuity of f  z  , we have
f  z  2 
 dz  lim i  f  a   ei  d 
C
za   0
 0 
2
 i  lim f  a   ei  d
 0
0

2
 i  f  a  d  2 i f  a 
0

So that we have as required,

1 f  z
f a   dz.
2 i C z  a

Cauchy Integral formula for first Derivative of an Analytic Function

If f  z  is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C and a is any point inside C, then
1! f  z
f a    z  a dz.
2 i C
2

If a and a + h lie in C, then

f a  h  f a 1  f z f  z   1
f   a   lim  lim   dz   dz 
h 0 h h 0 2 i
 C z   a  h  C
z  a  h

1 1  1 1 
 lim
h 0 2 i  h  z   a  h   z  a  f  z  dz
C  
 1  z  a   z  a  h   1
 lim
h 0 2 i    z  a  h  z  a   f  z   h dz
C  

1 1  h f  z 
 lim
h 0 2 i 
C h
 dz 
  z  a  h  z  a  

1 f  z

2 i   z  a
C
2
dz.

Therefore,
1! f  z
f a    z  a dz.
2 i C
2

Exercise
If f  z  is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve and a is any point inside C, then
2! f  z
f   a     z  a dz.
2 i C
3

Cauchy’s Integral Formula for the nth derivative of an Analytic Function

If f  z  is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C and if a is any point inside the curve
C, then

n! f  z
f n a    z  a dz ,
2 i C
n 1

where f n  a  is the nth derivative of f  z  at a and n is a positive integer.

Example
cos z
1. Evaluate 
C
z3
dz where C : z  1

Solution
Set
z 3   z  0   a  0, n  1  3  n  2
3

Also a = 0 is point inside C.

Take f  z   cos z.

Therefore by Cauchy’s Integral Formula,

 cos z 2 i 2
 3
dz  f  0
c
z 2!

f   z    sin z

f   z    cos z, f   0   1

cos z 2 i
 3
dz   1   i
c
z 2!

sin  z 2  cos  z 2
2. Evaluate 
C  z  1 z  2
dz , C : z  3

Solution
Set  z  1 z  2   0  z  1 or z = 2 both are inside C.
1
Resolving into partial fractions;
 z  1 z  2 
1 A B
 
 z  1 z  2  z 1 z  2

Therefore A  z  2   B  z  1  1

If z  1   A  1  A  1
If z  2  B  1
1 1 1
 
 z  1 z  2  z  2 z 1

Therefore,
sin  z 2  cos  z 2 sin  z 2  cos  z 2 sin  z 2  cos  z 2
  z  1 z  2 dz 
C

C
z2
dz  
C
z 1
dz

f  z   sin  z 2  cos  z 2 , n  1  1  n  0

At z  2 ,
f  2   sin 4  cos 4  1

t z  1,

f 1  sin   cos   1

By Cauchy’s Integral Formula,

 f  z
 dz  f  a  2 i 
C
za
Thus
sin  z 2  cos  z 2 sin  z 2  cos  z 2 sin  z 2  cos  z 2

c  z  1 z  2 
dz  c
z2
dz  
c
z 1
dz

 f  2  2 i   f 1 2 i 

 1 2 i   1 2 i

 2 i  2 i
 4 i.

3. Evaluate
e2 z
  z  1
C
4
dz , where C : z  3

Solution
 z  1  0  z  1  0  z  1
4

Also z  1 is inside C
 a  1 and n 1  4  n  3

Take f  z   e2 z

Then
e2 z 2 i 3
  z  1 4
dz  f  1
3!

f   z   2e2 z , f   z   4e 2 z , f   z   8e2 z , f   1  8e2

Therefore,
e2 z 2 i
  z  1 4
dz 
3!
8e2 
c

2 i

6
8e2 
8 i 2
 e .
3
4. Evaluate the integral
 3z  1
z
C
2
 4iz  3
dz, if C : z  i  1.

Solution:
4i   4i   12
2
4i  2i
Set z  4iz  3  0
2
z 
2 2

 z  i or z  3i .
Only z  i is inside C.
Therefore take

3z  1
f ( z)  , n 1  1  n  0 .
z  3i
Therefore

3z  1 3z  1 f  z
z dz   ( z  i)( z  3i)dz   dz  2 i f  i 
C
2
 4iz  3 C C
z i

Now,
3i  1
f i   .
2i
3z  1  3i  1 
  dz  2 i f  i   2 i      3i  1    3 i .
C
z  4iz  3
2
 2i 

Exercise
Evaluate the following integrals
sin 3 z
a)  dz if C: z 5
C z  
2

e3 z
b) 
C
z i
dz if C : z 1  4

2z 1
c)   z  1 z  2dz,
C
if C: z 3

sin 6 z 21 i
d)  dz if C : z  1,
z  6
3
C
16

z
e)   9  z   z  i  dz,
C
2
where C: z 2
 z
f)  2 z  1 dz
C
where C : z 1
 SINGULARITIES
Definition (Singularity)
A point at which f  z  fails to be analytic is called a singular point or singularity of f  z  .
Various types of singularities exist.

1. Isolated Singularity
The point z  z0 is called an isolated singularity of f  z  if we can find a   0 such that the
circle z  z0   encloses no other singular point of f ( z ) other than z0 . If no such a  can be
found, we call z0 a non-isolated singularity
e2 z
Let f  z   , then z = 1 isolated of f ( z ) .
z 1

2. Poles
If we can find a positive integer n such that lim  z  z0  f  z   A  0 , then z0 is called a pole
n

z  z0

of order n. If n = 1, z0 is called a simple pole.

Example
1
f  z  has a pole of order 3 at z  2 since lim  z  2  f  z   1  0
3
1.
 z  2
3 z 2

3z  2
2. f  z  has a pole of order 2 at z = 1, a simple pole at z = -1 and z = 4.
 z  1  z  1 z  4 
2

.Since
3z  2 1 1
lim  z  1 f  z   lim   0
2

z 1 z 1  z  1 z  4  2  3 6
3z  2 5 1
lim  z  1 f ( z )  lim   0
z 1 z 1
 z  1  z  4
2
4  5 4

3. Removable singularities.
The singular point z0 is called a removable singularity of f  z  if lim f  z  exists but f  z  is
z  z0

undefined at z0 .

Example
sin z
The singular point z = 0 is a removable singularity of f  z   since f ( z ) is not defined at
z
sin z
z = 0 but lim  lim cos z  1.
z 0 z z 0
3. Essential singularity
A singularity which is not a pole or a removable singularity is called an essential singularity

Example
f  z  e
1
z 2
a) has an essential singularity at z = 2.
 1 
b) f  z   sin   has an essential singularity at z  5.
 z 5

4. Branch Points
The singularity of a multiple-valued function is called a branch point. It is a points where f  z 
is undefined or not multiple-valued.

Example
f  z    z  3
1
2
a) has a branch point at z = 3
b) f  z   ln  z 2  z  2  has a branch points where z 2  z  2  0 i.e. at z = 1 and z = -2.

Exercise
1. Locate and name all the singularities of
z8  z 4  2
a) f  z  
 z  1  3z  2 
3

z 2  3z
b) f  z 
z2  2z  2
ln  z  3i 
c) f  z 
z2

d) f  z   z  z 2  1
 LAURENT’S SERIES
Theorem
Let f  z  be analytic inside and on the boundary of a ring-shaped region R bounded by two
concentric circles C1 and C2 with centre a and respective radii r1 and r2  r1  r2  , then for all z in
R,
 
a n
f  z    an  z  a   
n
,
n 1  z  a 
n
n 0

a1 a2 a3

 a0  a1  z  a   a2  z  a   ...    
2
,
z  a  z  a   z  a 3
2

where
1 f  w
an  
2 i C1  w  a n 1
dw, n  0,1, 2,3,...

and
1 f  w
a n  
2 i C2  w  a  n 1
dw, n  1, 2,3,...

The part a0  a1  z  a   a2  z  a   ... is called the analytic part of the Laurent series while the
2

remainder of the series which consists of inverse powers of  z  a  is called the principal part.

Example
1) Find the Laurent series about the indicated singularity
e2 z
a) f  z   ; z 1
 z  1
3

 1 
b) f  z    z  3 sin  ; z  2
 z2
Solution
a) Let z 1  u . Then z = 1 + u and
e2 z e 2  e 2u

 z  1
3
u3

e2   2u   2u   2u  
2 3 4
 
 3 1  2u     ...
u  2! 3! 4! 

e2 2e2 4e2 8e2 16e2u
      ...
u3 u 2 2u 6 24
e2 2e 2 2e 2 4e 2 2
      z  1 e 2  ...
 z  1
3
 z  1
2
 z  1 3 3
b) Let z  2  u , then z  u  2 . Thus

 z  3 sin 
1  1
   u  5  sin  
 z2 u

1 1 1 
  u  5     ...
 u 3!u 5!u 
3 5

5 1 5 1
 1     ...
u 3!u 3!u 5!u 4
2 3

5 1 5 1
 1     ...
z  2 6  z  2  6  z  2  120  z  2 4
2 3

1
2) Expand f  z   in the Laurent series valid for
 z  1 z  3
a) 1  z  3

b) z 3

c) 0  z  1  2

d) z 1

Solution
a) Resolving into partial fractions,
1 1 1
 
 z  1 z  3 2  z  1 2  z  3
 1
If z  1 , then  1 and so
z

1 1 1  1 1 1 1 
  1   2  3  4  ... 
2  z  1 2 z 1  1 z  2z  z z z z 

1 1 1 1
  2  3  4  ...
2z 2z 2z 2z
z
If z  3 , then  1 and so
3

1 1 1  z z 2 z3 
  1     ... 

2  z  3 6 1  z
3 6  3 9 27 

1 z z 2 z3
     ...
6 18 54 162
Thus the required Laurent series expansion valid for 1  z  3 is

1 1 1 1 1 z z 2 z3
...         
2 z 4 2 z 3 2 z 2 2 z 6 18 54 162
b) If z  3 , then z  1 so that by part (a) above

1 1 1 1 1
  2  3  4  ...
2  z  1 2 z 2 z 2z 2z

3
Also if z  3 , then  1 so that
z

1 1 1  3 9 27 
  1  z  2  3  ... 
2  z  3 2 z 1  3  z  2z  z z 

1 3 9 27
  2  3  4  ...
2z 2z 2z 2z
Then the required Laurent series expansion valid for both z  1 and z  3 is

 1 1 1 1   1 3 9 27 
  2  3  4  ...     2  3  4  ... 
 2z 2z 2z 2z   2z 2z 2z 2z 
1 4 13 40
     ...
z 2 z3 z 4 z5
 u
c) Let z + 1 = u. Then u  2 or  1 and
2
1 1 1
 
 z  1 z  3 
u  u  2  2u 1  u
2 
1  u u 2 u3 
 1     ... 
2u  2 4 8 
1 1 1 1
    z  1   z  1  ...
2

2  z  1 4 8 16

d) If z  1 , then z  3 . Now taking z  1 we have

 1  z  z 2  z 3  ...
1 1 1

2  z  1 2 1  z  2

1 z z2 z3
     ...
2 2 2 2
If z  3 , we have by part (a),
1 1 z z 2 z3
     ...
2  z  3 6 18 54 162

Therefore required Laurent series is

 1 z z 2 z3   1 z z 2 z3 
     ...      ... 
2 2 2 2   6 18 54 162 
1 4 13 2 40 3
  z z  z  ...
3 9 27 81

Exercise
z
1. Find an expansion of f  z   valid for z  3  2
z 1
2

1
2. Expand in a Laurent series valid for a) 0  z  2 b) z  2
z  z  2
z
3. Expand f  z   in a Laurent series valid for
 z  1 2  z 
a) z 1

b) 1  z  2
c) z 2

d) z 1  1

e) 0  z  2  1
 RESIDUES AND CAUCHY’S RESIDUE THEOREM
Residues
Definition (Residue at a pole)
If f  z  has a simple pole at z = a, then the residue of f  z  at z = a is defined by
a1  lim  z  a  f  z  .
z a

Incase z = a is a pole of order k of f  z  , then

a1  lim
1 d k 1
z a  k  1 ! dz k 1
 z  a  k

f z .

The residue of f  z  at z = a is also denoted by Re s f  z  .

z a

Example
z3  5z  1
1. Find the poles of f  z   and corresponding residues.
z2
Solution
To get the poles solve the equation z  2  0  z  2 and has order 1 i.e. is a simple pole.

Re s f  z   lim  z  2 
 z 3  5z  1
z 2 z 2
 z  2
 lim  z 3  5 z  1
z 2

 8 10 1  19 .

z
2. Find the residue of f  z   at the poles.
 z  1 z  1
2

Solution
Poles solve  z  1 z  1  0
2

 z  1 of order 1
z  1 of order 2
At z = 1 the residue is,
z
Re s f  z   lim  z  1
 z  1  z  1
z 1 z 1 2

z
 lim
 z  1
z 1 2
 1

 2
2

1

4
At z  1 ,
 
1 d  z 
Re s f  z   lim  z  1
2
 
z 1 z 1 1! dz
 z  1  z  1
2
 

d  z 
 lim  
z 1 dz  z  1 

 lim
 z  11   z 1
 z  1
z 1 2

1
 lim
 z  1
z 1 2

1

 2 
2

1
 .
4
Cauchy’s Residue Theorem
Theorem (Cauchy’s Residue Theorem)
If f  z  is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C except at a finite number of poles
a1 , a2 , , an inside C at which the residues are b1 , b2 , , bn respectively, then

 f  z  dz  2 i b  b
C
1 2   bn  .

Proof

With centres a1 , a2 , , an respectively, construct non-overlapping circles C1 , C2 ,..., Cn which lie

entirely inside C as shown in the figure above. This can be done since a1 , a2 , , an are interior
points. By a previous theorem, we have

C
 f  z  dz   f  z  dz   f  z  dz    f  z  dz
C1 C2 Cn
1)

g  z
Consider the integral  f  z  dz .
C1
Since z  a1 is a pole of f  z  inside C1, then f  z  
z  a1

for some function g  z  analytic inside and on C1. Thus by Cauchy’s integral formula,

g  z
 f  z  dz   z  a
C1 C1 1
dz  g  a1  2 i 

 2 i lim  z  a1  f  z 
z  a1

  2 i  Re s f  z 
z  a1

 2 ib1

Substituting into equations 1), we have

Thus
 f  z  dz   2 i  b1   2 i  b2 
C
  2 i  bn

 2 i  b1  b2   bn  .

Example
2z  3
Evaluate 
C
z 1
dz where C : z  3

Solution
2z  3
Let f  z  
z 1
Poles f  z  are obtained by solving the equation z 1  0

 z  1 , has order 1 and is inside C

2z  3
Re s f ( z )  lim  z  1
z 1 z 1  z  1
 lim  2 z  3  5
z 1

By Cauchy’s Residue Theorem,

2z  3
C z  1 dz  2 i  5  10 i.
ez
2. Evaluate  dz where
C 
z  2  z  4 

a) C : z  5

b) C : z  3

c) C : z  1

Solution
a) If C : z  5;

ez
Let f ( z ) 
 z  2 z  4
Poles are  z  2  z  4   0
  z  2 or z4
Both are inside C and each is a simple pole.
ez
Re s f  z   lim  z  2 
z 2 z 2  z  2  z  4 
ez e2
 lim 
z 2 z  4 2
ez
Re s f  z   lim  z  4 
z 4 z 4  z  2  z  4 
 e z  e4
 lim  
z 4 z  2
  2

ez  e2 e4 
Therefore
C
  z  2  z  4 
dz  2 i   
 2 2 

  i  e4  e2 

b) If C : z  3 , z = 4 is outside and residue is 0. But z = 2 is inside C and from part (a),

e2
Re s f  z  
z 2 2

ez  e2 
Therefore  dz  2 i     i  e 2  .
C  z  2  z  4   2 
c) When C : z  1 , both poles are outside C and therefore by Cauchy’s Theorem,

ez
 z  2 z  4 dz  0
C 

dz
3. Evaluate z
C
2
 iz  6
where C : z  2i  2

Solution
1
Let f  z   ;
z  iz  6
2

To get the poles, solve z 2  iz  6  0

i  i   24
2

z
2
 i  25 i  5i
  z  2i or z  3i
2 2

Since z   2i   2 , only z  2i is inside C

Re s f ( z )  lim
 z  2i 
z 2 i ( z  2i)( z  3i)
z 2i

1 1
 lim 
z 2 i ( z  3i ) 5i
Therefore by Cauchy’s Residue Theorem,

dz  1 2
z
C
2
 iz  6
 2 i       .
 5i  5

4. Evaluate the integral

2z2 1

C  z  1
2
dz where C : z  2

Solution
2z2 1
Let f  z   ;
 z  1
2

Poles of f  z  are obtained by solving

 z  1  0  z  1
2

z 1 is a pole of order 2 inside C.

1 d  2 2z 1 
2 
Re s f  z   lim  z  1 2
z 1  2  1 ! dz
z 1

  z  1 

 lim
d
z 1 dz
 2 z 2  1
  lim 4 z  4
z 1
By Cauchy’s residue Theorem,
2z2 1
 dz  2 i  4 
C  z  1
2

 8 i

Exercise
1. Evaluate the integral
1 e zt
2 i C z 2  z 2  2 z  2 
dz around the circle with equation z  3.

2z2  5
2. Evaluate   z  2  z
C
3 2
 4 z 2
dz where C is

a) z 3

b) The square with vertices at 1 + i, 2 + i, 2 + 2i, 1 + 2i.

2  3sin  z
3. Evaluate the integral 
C
z  z  1
dz where C is a square having vertices 3 + 3i, 3 – 3i,

-3 + 3i, -3 – 3i.