Permanent Mdgnet O LO or MMC Instrument

It is a type of widely used analog mutimeter which makes use of permanent magnet moving
(PMMC). The instruments which use the permanent magnet for creating the stationary magnetie field
between which the coil moves is known as the permanent magnet moving coil or PMMC instrument. it
operates on the principle that the torque is exerted on the moving coil placed in the field of the

permanent magnet

Construction of PMMC Instrument

The moving coil and permanent magnet are the main part of the PMMC instrument. The parts of the
PMMC instruments are explained below in details.

Pivot and jewel

Bearing Pointer
Scale
Spring

Balancing
Weight Mirror

North Core South

Coiland Permanent
Former Magnet
Pivot and jewel
Scale Bearing

Radial
Field Moving
Coil
N

Balancng
Weight
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil instrument

Moving Coil The coil is the eurent carrying part of the instrunments which is freely moved
between the stationary field of the permanent magnet. The current passes through the coil
mounted on the rectangular tormeT Which iS made up of aluminium. The former
increases the
radial and uniform magnetic field between the air gap of the poles. The coil is wound with the
silk cover copper wire between the poles ofa magnet.

The coil is mounted on the rectangular former which is made up of aluminium. The
former
increases the radial and unitorm magnetic field between the air gap of the poles. The coil is
wound with the silk cover copper wire between the poles of a magnet.

Magnet System - 11he PMMC instrument using the permanent magnet for creating the

stationary magnets. The Alcomax and AlInico material areused for creating the permanent
magnet because this magnet has the high coercive force (The coercive force changes the
magnetisation property of the magnet). Also, the magnet has high field intensities.

Control-In PMMC instrument the controlling torque is because ofthe springs. The springs ar
made up of phosphorous bronze and placedbetween the two jewel bearings. The spring also
provides the path to the lead current to flow in and out of the moving coil. The controlling torq
is mainly because of the suspension of the ribbon.

Damping- The damping torque is used for keeping the movement of the coil in rest. This
damping torque is induced beçause of the movement ofthe aluminium core which is moving
between the poles of the permanent magnet.

Pointer & Scale- The pointer is linked with the moving coil. The pointer notices the deflectic
of the coil, and the magnitude of their deviation is shown on the scale. The pointer is made of
lightweight material, and hence it is easily deflected with the movement of the coil. Sometime
the parallax error occurs in the instrument which is easily reduced by correctly aligning the bla
of the pointer.

Torque Equation for PMMC Instrument

The deflecting torque induces because of the movement of the coil. The deflecting torque is
expressed by the equation shown below.

T= NBLdl ...equ(1).Where, N- Number of turns of coil

B- flux density in the air gap
L, d- the vertical and horizontal length of the side.
G NBLd...equ(2)
Icurrent through the coil.

The spring provides the restoring torque to the moving coil which is expressed

Tc = K6.... equ(3)
as

Where K-Spring constant.

 For final detlectliotn,

KO = GI

GI
equ(4)

I .equ(5)
G The above equation shows that the deflection torque is directly
proportional to the current passing through the coil.

Error in PMMC Instruments

In PMMC instruments the error occurs because of the ageing and the temperature effects of the
instruments. The magnet, spring and the moving coil are the main parts of the instruments which
cause the error. The different types of errors of the instrument are explained below in details.

1. Magnet-The heat and vibration reduce the lifespan ofthe permanent magnet. This treatment
also reduced the magnetism of the magnet. The magnetism is the property of the attraction or
repulsion of the magnet. The weakness of the magnet decreases the deflection of the coil.

2. Springs -The weakness of thespringincreases the deflection of moving coil between the
permanent magnet. So, even for the small value of current, the coil show large deflection. The
spring gets weakened because of the effect of the temperature. One degree rise in temperature
reduces the 0.004 percent life of the spring.

3. Moving Coil The error exists in the coil when their

range is extended from the given limit
-

by the use of the shunt. The error occurs because of the change of the coil resistance on the shunt
resistance. This happens because the coil is made up of
copper wire which has high shunt
resistance and the shunt wire made up of metal strip or wire has low
resistance.
temperature coefticient and

To overcome from this error, the

coil. The resistor which has
swamping resistance is placed in series with the moving
low-temperature coefficient is known as the swamping resistance.
The swamping resistance reduces the effect of
temperature on the moving coil.
Advantages of PMMC Instruments

The following are the advantages of the PMMC Instruments.

1. The scale of the PMMC instruments is
2. The power
correctly divided.
consumption the devices is very less.
of
 ot
the
have high accuracy because
ThePMMC instruments current This can be done by the
The single device m e a s u r e s
the different range of voltage and

use of multipliers and shunts

shelf shielding magnet which is useful for the aerospace
The PMMC instruments use
applications

Instruments
Disadvantages of PMMC

instruments.
The following are the disadvantages of the PMMC
current varies with
instruments are used
only for the direct current. The alternating
The PMMC coil But the pointer can not
variation of the current varies the torque of the
the time The rapid use for AC.
follow the fast reversal and the deflection
of the torque. Thus, it cannot
the moving coil instruments.
much higher as compared to
The cost of the PPMC instruments is

damping. The electromagnetic damping

The moving coil itself provides the electromagnetic reaction of the eddy current and the
opposes the motion of the coil which is because of the
magnetic ficld.

le.
Anpe
ed a a
Vo tmelu
hmro2e

ave OM

n ma
Cad t luw CLan
JeleclLnnaI
 ranges by using diterent values for many different current and tage
Since the operating forces are shunts and multipliers.
may be as high as 0.5 Wb/m the
large on account of large flux
errors due to stray densities wnicn
Self-shielding magnets make the core
magnetic fields are smal.
in aircraft and magnet mechanism particularly useru
aerospace applications.
The chief disadvantages are
These instruments are useful only for d.c. The
reverses. If the instrument is
torque reverses it the Curren
connected to a.c., the pointer cannot tonow
rapid reversals and the deflection corresponds to mean torque, which is zero.
Hence these instruments cannot be used for a.c.
The cost of these instruments is higher than that of moving iron instruments.
Error is produced due to ageing
effect of PMMC
Friction and temperature error are present.

Extension of rangeof PMMC instrumente t

Case-I: Ammeter
to extent the range of
A low shunt resistance connected in parallel with the ammeter
rated ammeter by using a
Current. Large current can be measured using low current
shunt.

Vs

K
V
Let Rm =Resistance of meter
Resistance of shunt
Rsh meter
Im= Current through
=current through shunt
Ish
FCurrent to be
measure

(1)
.. Vm = Vsh
ImRm l shRsh

R (2)
 Apply KCL at 'P' / =
Im+ Ish
Eqn (3)+ by Im
(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)
1 Rsh IS called
This has least multiplication factor Shunt resistance is made
thermoelectric
temperature is negligible. emf. The change is
of manganin.
resistance, due to change in

Case (I1): Voltmeter

A large resistance is connected in series with

large voltage can be measured voltmeter is called multiplier
using a voltmeter of small rating with (Fig.). A
a
multiplier.

Ise

Let Rm=resistance of
meteer
m Vge
Rse =resistance of
Vm =Voltage acrossmultiplier Rm Rse
meter
Vse= Voltage across series resistance
V= voltage to be measured Apy EvL, V=Vm+Vse
Im Ise V = + Vse
Vm Vm (7) Rm
mult plcal
6acte
 WAMOMETER TYPE INSTRUMENTS
An
or
electrodynamometer
oroduced by another coil type instrument
which isa moving coil
as a
voltmeter, but is
is
fixed. This type of instrument in which the
generally used as a instrument can be used eitheroperating field is
wattmeter. as an
ammeter

ELECTRODYNAMIC INSTRUMENT AS AN AMMETER

ELECTRODYNAMIC INSTRUMENT AS A VOLTMETER

Electrodynamic instruments are also capable of
functioning as transfer instruments. Besides, their
use as an ammeter,
voltmeter, and wattmeter; they are also used to transfer calibration
instruments. of working
CONSTRUCTION -
The instrument consists of a fixed coil and a
moving coil. The fixed coil is usually air-cored to avoid
hysteresis effects when used on AC circuits. Fixed coils are wound with fine wire for use as a
voltmeter.

scale

rnovable toil

fixcd coil

But, if the instrument is to be used as an ammeter or wattmeter, then the fixed coils are wound

with heavy wire carrying the main current.

 cONTENTS OF
PRESCRIBED SYLLABUS
THEORY/ PRACTICAL
moving coil is mounted on an aluminium spindle. It is wound either
ke on a non-metallic former so as to as self
prevent eddy currents. Moving coils are sustaining coil or
oNTROLLING TORQUE also air-cored.
Controlling torque is provided by two control springs.
DAMPING -
These springs act as leads to the
moving coil.
Air friction damping is provided by aluminium vanes attached to the
DEFLECTING TORQUE - spindle at the bottom.
Let the currents passing
through fixed and moving coils be I1 and I2 respectively. Since, there is no
iron, field strength and hence flux density is
proportional to I1.

B KI
: =00000,
(K is constant)
Force on each side
of the moving coil= NBI21
Torque produced on whole of the coil
=

0O000,0O0
=
NBI2l b=NBI2A_= 00000,000x0=
x

Which can be written as, Ta NKII2A

00000O,000
6
=

m
=
¢¢¢¢ 00, ¢ N-
(Byputting B=Kl1)
It shows that the deflecting torque is
proportional to the product of currents flowing in the fixed
and the moving coil.
Since, the instrument is spring controlled; the restoring or controlling torque is proportional to
angular deflection0.

TeK20

As, the deflecting torque is equal to the controlling torque,

0 xIl2 « ,00,.The deflection produced in the instrument is proportional
to the product of currents flowing in the fixed and the moving coil.
ADVANTAGES
These instruments are free from hysteresis and eddy current losses.
They can be used on both AC and DC.
They are used as transfer instruments.

DISADVANTAGES
Low torque/weight ratio and hence low sensitivity.
Costlier than PMMC and moving iron type.
Non-uniform scale.
 UNIT- Remainuuf Kotas
Moving Iron or MI Instrument
Definition: The instrument in which the moving iron is used
for measuring the flow of current or voltage is known as the moving iron
instrument. It works on the principle that the iron place near the magne
attracts towards it. The force of attraction depends on the strength or
the magnet field. The magnetic field induces by the electromagnet whose
strength depends on the magnitude of the current passes through it. CAL

Construction of Moving Iron Instrument

The plate or vane of soft iron is used as the moving element of the instrument.
The vane is so placed that it can freely move in the magnetic field of the

stationary coil. The conductor makes the stationary coil, and it is excited by the
voltage or current whose magnitude is used to be measured.

The moving iron instrument uses the stationary coil as an electromagnet. The
electromagnet is the temporary magnet whose magnetic field strength
increases or decreases with the magnitude of the current passes through it.

Instrument
Working of the Moving Iron
instruments the stationary coil of copper or aluminium wire
The moving iron use
it. The
which acts as an electromagnet when an electric current passes through
strengthof the magnetic field induces by the electromagnet is directly
proportional to the current passes through it.
inductance of
The plates or vane of the iron pass through the coil increases the
the stationary coil (the inductance is the property of the conductor which
increases their electromotive force when the varying current passes through
It).
 through the coil
electromagnet attracts the iron vane. The vane passes of
reluctance is the property
es to occupy the minimum reluctance path (the
the magnet which opposes the flow of electric current).

caused by the
The vane passes the coil experience a force of repulsion
through
electromagnet. The repulsion force increases the strength of the coll
inductance.
This happens because the inductance and reluctances are inversely
proportional to each other.

Classification of the Moving Iron Instruments

The attraction and the repulsion are the types of the moving iron instruments.
Their detail explanation is shown below.

1. Attraction Type - The instrument in which the iron plate attracts from the
weaker field towards the stronger field such type of instrument is
attraction type instrument. known as the

Construction of Attraction Type Instrument The

attraction type instrument is flat and has a narrow
-

stationary coil of the

is the flat disc of the iron core. The opening. The moving element
current flow through the stationary coil
produced the magnetic field which attracts the iron coil.
 Air Damping
Pointer
Chamber
* *
Coil
Winding ***
Balance
Weight Moving
Iron
Controlt
Weight
Attraction Type Moving Coil Instrument
The iron vane deflects from the low
magnetic field to the high magnetic field,
and the strength of the deflection is
directly proportional to the
Current flow through it. In short, we can say that the iron coil magnitude t
of
attracts towards
The attraction type instruments use spring, which
provided the controlling
torque. The deflection of the coil is reduced by the aluminium piston which is
attached to the moving coil.
2. Repulsion Type Instruments -
The repulsion type instrument has two
vanes or iron plates. One is fixed, and the other one is movable.
The vanes
become magnetised when the current passes through the stationary coil and
the force of repulsion occur between them. Because of a
repulsive force, the
moving coil starts moving away from the fixed vane.
 Pointer

Coil

Movable
Vane
Fixed
Vane

Coil

Radial Vane ype MI instruments

The spring provides the controlling torque. The air friction induces the damping
torque. which opposes the movement of the coil. The repulsion type instrument
is a non-polarized instrument, i.e., free from the direction of current passes
through it. Thus, it is used for both AC and DC.

Advantages of the MI Instruments

The following are the advantages of the moving iron instruments.

1. Universal use - The MI instrument is independent of the direction of

current and hence used for both AC and DC.

2. Less Friction Error The friction error is very less in the moving iron
instrument because their torque weight ratio is high. The torque weight
ratio is high because their current carrying part is stationary and the moving
parts are lighter in weight.
3. Cheapness The MI instruments require less number of turns
-

as
compared to PMMC instrument. Thus, it is cheaper.
4. Robustness The instrument is robust because of their
simple
-

construction. And also because their current carrying part is

stationary.
Disadvantages of Moving Iron Instruments

The following the

are
disadvantages of Moving Iron Instrument.
 The scale of the moving iron
instruments is not uniform, and
1. Accuracy
hence the accurate result is not possible.
the instruments because of
2. Errors Some serious error occurs in
-

field.
the hysteresis, frequency and stray magnetic
In MI instrument the deflection torque is
not directly
3. Waveform Error
of which the waveforms
proportional to the square of the current. Because
error occurs in the instrument.
4. Difference between AC and DC calibration The calibration of the AC
and DC differed because of the effect of the inductance of meter and
are
the eddy current which is used on AC. The AC is calibrated on the
frequency at which they use.

Two type of error occurs in the MI instruments i.e., the error which occurs on
both AC and DC and the error which only occur on AC.
 Repulsion Type Moving Iron
Instrument
The repulsion type moving iron
or co-aXial type which instrument is
are
discussed below. classified into two types radial vane &
concentric vane

Radial Vane
If the
Repulsion Type Instrument
repulsion type moving iron
vane instrument has radial vanes
repulsion type instrument. This
strips. These vanes are instrument includes two then this instrument is
called a radial
The deflection
torque in
arranged radially, where one vane is vanes which are also known as iron
make the scale this instrument is fixed & the other vane
uniform
the most sensitive so directly
that readings of proportional to the actual
is movable.
current
type. scale can be
directly attained. These within the coil to
instruments are

Coutrol
Spriog Pointer

_Field
Coil

Poles Induced
By Field Flux Fxed
Moving
Vaue
Vaue
1WarElectrical.com
Radial Vane Repulsion Type
Instrument

Co-axial Vane Repulsion Type Instrument

n e repulsion type moving iron instrument has coaxial vanes then this instrument is called a
Codxial vane repulsion type instrument. In this type of instrument, the two vanes are arranged co-
 -nEn sYLLABUS THEORYIPRACTICAL
axially within the
coil where
middle axis within one vane is
proportional to the
the
stationary stationary and the other vane is
vane. But, the
uniform because ofsquare of the current within the deflecting torque on movable and rotates
the concentric coil. on the pointer isis at the
the
radial-type instruments. vanes. These
So the scale in this directly
instrument cannot
instruments are less sensitive as
be
compared to

Control
Spring Pointer

Field
Coil

Fixed
Vane Moving
Vane

arElectrical.com
Co-axial Vane Repulsion Type

instrument will possess

conclude that the attraction type
we can So, voltmeters are entirely
from the above information, instrument.
utilized for
So, repulsion type mainly
inductance as compared to the instruments are
the least Repulsion-type
attained very easily.
e x t e n d e d levels
of frequency. scale can be
accurate over the linear
these instruments,
economical purposes. By using
 baseu

RETYPE INSTRUMI instrument

is
b e c a u s e ifthe type.
own

n o w a d a y s
their

advancements of
m e a s u r i n g

type much
in u s e
wire
hot not
a
g of
are further
instruments
for
the way
of
they
paved TTTT7 TTT
ess, features
of p o i n t e r

constructional
R U C T I O N -

platinum-
the
shows
consists of a and
figure It end B
ent instrument.

a fixed wire
between

type
e
platinum-iridium
s t r e t c h e d

AB The t e m p e r a t u r e s .

vire screw
at A.
at high hooked up
adjusting o x i d a t i o n

or
to a
w i t h s t a n d
attached

wire CD
is attached
e can
bronze further
ohosphor wire CD is is D
AB. This the pulley
Oamping mJgnet

entre of round
passing
which after
er spring S.
I N S T R U M E N T

to a TYPE
ed HOT
WIRE

wire AB,
it
DOES IT wORK? through the fine is current.

is passed the wire the

of value of
of the
current

the The sag spring. the

eated up
and expands.
is taken up
by the deflect,
indicating
hence to
the s q u a r e
expansion to and
the the pointer current

ifiedand pulley to r o t a t e and effect of the

the the heating to
zauses proportional
is
Expansion current.
to0
proportional

valueof the which in turn is

expansion of AB
to the
FLECTION- is
proportional
« 0¢
the pointer
deflection of 0O000004000000000000O00000
deflection ox I ¢¢
unce, control is used, Te X 06
spring

and
are independent
of its form
and their readings
read the rms value of current
instruments
These
frequency.
to
disc. This thin
disc is attached
DAMPING - currents produced in the
aluminium
M.
Damping is provided by
eddy the poles of the permanent magnet
moves
between
such that its edge
the pulley

ADVANTAGES

Suited for both AC and DC work.

Readings are independent of waveform and frequency.

Unaffected by stray fields.

DISADVANTAGES
Sluggish response due to temperature dependent working.
.High power consumption.
Mechanical shocks.
They are fragile.
 lU
due
torque AC
INDUCTION TYPEINSTRUMENTS of flux of a n
. p r o d u c t i o n

AC
only foe
b e t w e e n

the used
on r e a c t i o n

are
depends OR instruments
instruments difference

type phase These

types of first
have a
i n a d u c t i o n
some

let us
this flux.
of having i n s t r u m e n t s ;

The
operation

magnetic
fluxes
induced by these
two c u r r e n t
details of torque
between

the eddy working the n e t

and and instruments.
fluxes;
magnet two
measurements.
constructional
on
the
these
into the produced
in depends
getting
i n s t r u m e n t s

torque
Before the type
look o n induction

general produced
in
torque
The
the disc
is
on
acting
=00000O0000OV2006Sine°°
Kwo |m 2m
Sin a
T
currents

produced by the
maximum
fluxes
=

660
060 O the two fluxes then
1m O2m .
between current,
Where, difference alternating
phase same

a =
are
produced by the
the fluxes
And if both

T K i o l m Sin g
=00,00000e sin current

to the s q u a r e
of
proportional
Therefore, torque
is
then at
some point the
value of
current.
has spring attain control, a steady
the disc the disc to
maximum
Where, Im= and angle if .

which will help used for

c a n be
value of frequency deflecting torque arrangement
for a given to the then this
will be equal a t t a c h e d to a
pointer,
controlling torque disc is discussion
And if the a healthy
deflected position.
i n s t r u m e n t s . For
the sake of
measurement of current.
about
induction type
discussion
general types.
This w a s a
these
instruments by their
we will
take on
two types:
instruments are of
Induction type

1. Split-phase type
2. Shaded pole type

SPLIT-PHASE TYPE induction instrument is shown here.

The diagram for the split phase type

C SPLIT PHASE TYPE INDUCTION INSTRUMENT

A
 Aition, McGraw
Hill, 2000.

15
oNSTRUCTION -
in this arrangement,
there are two AC
series. The winding in M2 is shunted by magnets M1 and M2, which
a resistance R.
are connected in
lags with respect to the total The current in the M
line current. This M2 winding
angle [Math Processing helps to develop the
Error] between the two fluxes. necessary phase
DEFLECTION -
f the hysteresis effects are
neglected, then deflecting torque is
[Math Processing Error]
(Where all the signs have their usual
Or, [Math Processing meanings as stated
Error] (if fluxes are produced by thebefore)
Note that, here| is the r.m.s value same current)
of
Also, {Math Processing Error] (Becausecurrent.
n the final deflected position, spring control is used)
T=Td.
Therefore, deflection ([Math Processing
Error])[Math Processing Error]
DAMPING -
Eddy current damping is used in this instrument.
SHADED POLE TYPE -

Shaded pole type induction instrument uses a

single winding to produce flux. The
flux produced by this winding is split up into
two fluxes, having phase
difference with respect to each other. The phase difference is usually 40 to 50
degrees and can be varied by varying the size of shading band. This is
done by making
a narrow slot in the poles of the electromagnet. A
copper strip is placed around the
smaller of the two areas formed by the slot. This
copper shading band acts as a short
circuited secondary winding.

CONSTRUCTION
The constructional features of a shaded pole type induction instrument are shown in
the figure below.
 pCnter

laminated iron core

contro
spring
nK
Damping magnet

field coil

aluminium disc shad1ng hands

encircling half of
spindie pole face

to current or
the poles and a current proportional
The exciting coil is placed on aluminium disc which is
mounted on
through it. An
voltage being measured is passed the electromagnet. The spindle
carries a
a spindle is inserted in the air gap of is provided by
has control spring attached to it. The controlling torque
pointer and a

this spring only.

DEFLECTION -

due to the fluxes and the difference

in the phase angle
As the net driving torque is
then deflecting torque can
be written as
of these fluxes,
[Math Processing Error]
current 1, then [Math Processing Error]1
If are produced by same
As the instrument is spring
controlled, [Math Processing Error]
For steady deflection, [Math Processing Error]

DAMPING
placed at the opposite side of the
Damping is provided by a permanent magnet both deflecting and
electromagnet, so that the disc can be used for production of

damping torque.

ADVANTAGES
A full scale deflection of over 300 degrees can be obtained.

Good damping.
the operating fields are large.
Less effect of stray magnetic fields as

DISADVANTAGES -

Errors are caused due to changes in frequency and temperature.

Non-uniform scale.
 gecdsostatic Tnstrumet.
aition: The instrument whose working depends on the principle of
such type of
i n i t h

action or repulsion of electrodes that carry electrical charges

words, the
strument is known as the electrostatic instrument. In otherthe deflecting torque
instrumen

instrument which uses the static electric field for producinginstrument is used for
as the electrostatic instrument. The electrostatic
is known circuit.
measuring the high and low voltage and also the power of the given

of mechanical interaction of
The electrostatic instrument works on the principle
The quantity which is
the electrodes that consists the opposite electrical charge.
AC or DC
measured the electrostatic instrument is converted into either
by
voltage.
There are two ways of constructions of electrostatic instruments;

1. In the electrostatic instrument, the charge is stored between the plates. The
electrostatic instrument consists the charges of two opposite polarity and
force of attraction occurs between these two plates. Because of the forcee
of attraction, the movable plates move towards the fixed plates and store
the maximum electrostatic energy.
2. In this type of instruments, there are forces of attraction or repulsion occur
between the rotary plate.

Force and Torque Equations of Electrostatic Instruments

Linear Type Electrostatic Instrument

ne igure below shows the linear electrostatic type instrument. The plates A
Decome positively charged, and the plate B becomes negatively charged. I he
positive charge plates become fixed, and the negative plates become movable
 r i n g is connected to the negatively charged plates for controlling
sprir

e m o v e m e n t .

A B
Movable
+ Plate
+
F
Fixed
Plate Spring

Linear Instrument of Electrostatic

of attraction induces
When the voltage is applied to the plate, then the force
between them. The plate tries to moves towards
A until the force becomes
between the plate. The
maximum. The C is the capacitance (in farad)
stores between the plates.
expression gives the total energy

Electrostatic Instrument
Rotary type
the rotary plates. Because of the movement
of
This type of instrument carries
attraction or repulsion occurs between them.
the rotary plate, the force of

Fixed
Plate

Spring

Movable
Plate

Rotary Motion of Electrostatic Instruments

 CONTENTS OF PRE
McGraw Hill, 2000.
C o m m u n i c a t i o n s " ,
4th Edition,
Analog Cireuits
ital 15
Theory
Class Work
25
100
Total
Ayantages of Electrostatic Hrs.
Instrument
1. Both the AC and
DC
instrument. voltage can be measured
2. The by using the
electrostatic type instrument electrostatic
3. The consumes very less
high value of
4. In the voltage can be measured power.
the
rotary type electrostatic by using the instrument.
angular displacement instrument, in
occurs between thespite of linear
5. The
instrument has less fixed and the displacement,
6. No error Waveform and moving plates.
occurs because of
the
frequency error.
7. The
instrument is stray magnetic field.
designed
for large
voltage.
Disadvantages of Electrostatic type instrument
1. The
non-uniform scale is used in the
2. The force of instrument.
very small magnitude
3. The instrument
is quite
involves in the instrument.
4. The size of the
costly as compared to the other
instrument is also instrument.
very large.