PHY121

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

Multimeters
and
Galvanometer
By
MR. ARIJAJE T. E Arijaje©2021
 OBJECTIVE
At the end of the class, students should be able to:
• Describe the use of the multimeter
• State the types of multimeter and the parameters that can be
measured using the multimeter.
• Define & Describe the working principles of the galvanometer.
• Explain how the galvanometer can be converted to a voltmeter and
an ammeter.
• Solve simple problems involving the conversion of a galvanometer to
an ammeter and a voltmeter.

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 MULTIMETER
• A multimeter is a device that measures AC/DC voltage, current and
resistance. It is also called the Volti-Ohm Milliammeter (VOM) or a
Multitester.

• The multimeter is used for various purposes such;

i. an ammeter, a voltmeter, an ohmmeter
ii. to measure DC as well as AC
iii. For Detecting a Short Circuit and testing transistors
iv. for measuring capacitance & frequency. Arijaje©2021
 Types of Multimeter
• There are two types of multimeter; they are:

i. Analog Multimeter

ii. Digital multimeter

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 Analog multimeter
Analog meters use a needle movement and calibrated scale to indicate
values. These were popular for years, but recently their numbers have
declined. Every voltmeter has an internal resistance or impedance.
The input impedance of an analog meter is expressed in Ohms per
Volt as shown in Figure 1.

Note: Analog Meters The internal impedance of the meter is in parallel

to the measured circuit.

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Figure 1: Analog multimeters
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 Digital Multimeter (DMMs)
The Digital Multimeter (DMMs) feature a digital or liquid crystal
display (LCD). Measurement readings are displayed as numerical
values on the LCD Display. The display also alerts you to any pertinent
symbols and warnings.

Note: Digital Multimeters and Clamp meters use different techniques

internally, to measure AC, DC voltage, Resistance and Amperes.

An example of DDMs is shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 2: Digital multimeters
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 Parts of a digital multimeter
• A multimeter has three parts as shown in Figure 3, they are;
LCD display, Selection knob and Ports.

Ports are the points where the probes (Red and Black) are plugged
into for positive and negative connection.

Knob is and handle in the multimeter used for changing the

parameter to be measured.

LCD display showed the value of the parameter measured as shown

in Figure 3
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Figure 3: Parts of the Multimeter
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 Measurement Functions
Table 1: Shows the
symbols, functions to
be measured and their
description

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 Voltage Measurements
Voltage measurements are perhaps the most common function used on
a multimeter.

Voltage is measured between two points so we must make sure that we

have solid contact at each point.

The proper way to connect a meter is to connect the low or ground

(black lead) first and the High (Red lead) next. We remove the leads in
reverse order, Red first and then Black.

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 DC Voltage Measurements
To measure DC voltage, we place the Red lead into the V Ω COM
port. Turn the dial or switch to VDC or V If it is a manual ranging
meter set.

As in the example in Figure 4 below, we want to measure a 9V

battery so the best range would be the 20 V range.

If you have an auto-ranging meter you only need to set the function
on the dial to VDC or V

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Figure 4: Measurement of DC voltage Arijaje©2021
 AC Voltage Measurement
To measure AC voltage, we place the Red lead into the V Ω port and
black lead into the COM port. Turn the dial or switch to VAC or V ̴ If it
is a manual ranging meter.

As an example the meter would be set to the 200 V range to measure

a 120V outlet. If you have an auto-ranging meter you only need to set
function to VAC or V ̴.

Remember that it is always a good practice to connect the black lead

first then the red.

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 Current Measurements
Current is the electron flow that causes electrical equipment to
operate. When the equipment is turned on, it is considered to be a
“load” on the circuit.
A load is any electrical component, such as a lamp, stereo, motor or
heating element, that draws current. Current is measured in amperes,
or amps.
Each load has a rated current limit that should not be exceeded. If a
load pulls too much current, excessive heat is produced that may cause
insulation damage, component failure and possible fire hazards. If the
load is under its rated current limit, it may perform poorly.
Testing current may be done in several ways, but the most common
method, and the most simple, is with a clamp meter
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 Current Measurements Cont’n
This indirect measurement is safer than using a multimeter in series
with the circuit. When making a measurement with a Clamp meter,
clamp to either the Hot or Neutral conductor but not both.

To measure using a meter we must open the circuit and make the
measurement in Series with the load.

This is the most potentially hazardous measurement made with a

multimeter because the meter is now part of the circuit.
To measure current with a multimeter, turn the power off at the
breaker as close to the source as possible. Break the circuit, connect
the multimeter in series with the circuit, and reestablish power as
shown in Figure 5.
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Figure 5: Measurement of electric current Arijaje©2021
 Continuity Measurement
Continuity is a quick check to see if a circuit is complete. Good fuses
and closed switches have continuity as shown in Figure 6.

During a continuity measurement, the multimeter sends a small

current potential through the circuit to measures the resistance of the
circuit.

The value for the maximum resistance can vary from meter to meter.
Most will indicate continuity from 0 to 50 ohms.

An audible alarm was added to aid in making fast go-no-go testing

without taking your eyes of your work.
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Figure 6: Measurement of Continuity Arijaje©2021
 Resistance Measurements
Resistance is measured in Ohms (Ω). When you first place the meter in the
(Ω) function the meter will give a display of “OL” (overload) or “1____”
indicating an infinite reading.

It is important when measuring Resistance that the circuit be de-energized

or turned off, or the circuit may damage the meter.

Most meters have overload protection on all ranges to prevent this, but you
should check the specifications of your digital multimeter to be sure.

For resistance measurements, place the test leads on each side of the
resistor as shown in Figure 7.
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Figure 7: Measurement of resistance Arijaje©2021
 Capacitance Measurement
A capacitor is a device that stores energy. It is widely used to give a
boost of energy at start up when power is applied to lighting and
motor systems.

To test a capacitor, first remove power from the device. Remember

that a capacitor stores energy so the next step is to Discharge the
capacitor, using a 10,000 to 20,000 ohm 2 or 5 watt resistor as shown
in Figure 8.

Never test without verifying that the energy has been discharged from
the capacitor.
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Figure 8: measurement of capacitance of a capacitor Arijaje©2021
 Galvanometer
A galvanometer is a device that is used to detect or measure small
amount of electric current.
The current and the intensity is indicated by the movement of a
magnetic needle or that of a coil in a magnetic field. The needle is an
important part of the galvanometer. There are different types of
Galvanometer; namely
i. Tangent galvanometer
ii. Astatic galvanometer
iii. Mirror galvanometer
iv. Ballistic galvanometer
v. Weston/D’Arsonval galvanometer
vi. Moving coil galvanometer
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 Moving Coil Galvanometer
A moving coil galvanometer is an instrument which is used to measure
electric current. It is a sensitive electromagnetic device which can
measure low currents even of the order of a few microamperes as
shown in Figure 9.
Moving coil galvanometers are mainly divided into two types, namely;

i. Suspended coil galvanometer

ii. Pivoted coil or Weston galvanometer

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Figure 9: moving coil Galvanometer

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 Principle of Moving Coil Galvanometer
A current-carrying coil placed in an external magnetic field
experiences magnetic torque.

The angle through which the coil is deflected due to the effect of the
magnetic torque is proportional to the magnitude of the current in
the coil.

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 Construction and Diagram of Moving Coil
Galvanometer
The moving coil galvanometer shown in
Figure 10. is made up of the following:
A rectangular coil which is made up of
insulated or fine copper wire wounded
on a metallic frame.
A phosphor-bronze strip connected to a
movable torsion used to suspend the
coil in a uniform radial magnetic field.
A cylindrical soft iron core to improve
the strength of the magnetic field. A
spring used to produce a counter
torque which balances the magnetic
torque. A plane mirror used to
measure the deflection of the coil.
Arijaje©2021 Figure 10: Construction and diagram of moving coil galvanometer
 Factors Affecting the Sensitivity of a Galvanometer
The following are the factors affecting the sensitivity of a moving
coil galvanometer, they are;

i. Number of turns in the coil

ii. Area of the coil

iii. Magnetic field strength

iv. The magnitude of couple per unit twist

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 Applications of Galvanometer
The moving coil galvanometer is a highly sensitive instrument due to
which it can be used to detect the presence of current in any given
circuit.

If a galvanometer is connected in a Wheatstone's bridge circuit, the

pointer in the galvanometer shows null deflection, i.e. no current
flows through the device.

The pointer deflects to the left or right depending on the direction of

the current. The galvanometer can be used to measure;
i. The value of current in the circuit by connecting it in parallel to a
low resistance.
ii. The voltage by connecting it with series with a high resistance.
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 Conversion of galvanometer to Ammeter
A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by connecting it in parallel
with a low resistance called shunt resistance as shown in Figure 11.
Suitable shunt resistance is chosen depending on the range of the
ammeter.

Figure 11: Conversion of galvanometer to an ammeter. Arijaje©2021

From Figure 11 above,
RG = Resistance of the galvanometer
G = Galvanometer coil
I = Total current flowing in the circuit
IG = Current flowing the galvanometer which corresponds to full-
scale reading
Rs = Value of shunt resistance.

When current IG passes through the galvanometer, the current

through the shunt resistance is given by; Is = I-IG. The Voltages across
the galvanometer and the shunt resistance are equal due to the
parallel nature of their connection. Therefore,
RG x IG = (I-IG) x Rs Arijaje©2021
 Conversion of galvanometer to Voltmeter
A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting it in series
with a high resistance known as multiplier as shown in Figure 12. A
suitable high resistance is chosen depending on the range of the
voltmeter

Figure 12: Conversion of an ammeter into voltmeter Arijaje©2021

From Figure 12 above,
RG = Resistance of the galvanometer
R = value of the resistance (multiplier)
G = Galvanometer coil
I = Total current flowing in the circuit
IG = Current flowing through the galvanometer which correspond to a full-
scale deflection
V = Voltage drop across the series connection of galvanometer and high
resistance (multiplier).
When current IG flows through the series combination of the galvanometer
and the high resistance, R; the voltage drop across the points ‘ab’ is given
by;
VT = V G + VR
VT = (IG x RG)+(IG x R) = IG(RG + R) Arijaje©2021
 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Moving Coil
Galvanometer
Advantages
i. High sensibility
ii. Not easily affected by stray magnetic fields
iii.The torque to weight ratio is high
iv. High accuracy and reliability
Disadvantages
i. It can be used only to measure direct currents (DC)
ii. Develops errors due to factors like aging of the instrument,
permanent magnets and damage of spring due to mechanical
stress Arijaje©2021
Q1: What is the purpose of introducing a cylindrical soft iron inside
the moving coil galvanometer?

A. Increases the magnetic field strength, thereby improving its

sensitivity.
B. decreases the magnetic field strength, thereby decreasing its
sensitivity
C. decreases the magnetic field strength, thereby increasing its
sensitivity
D. decreases the electric field strength, thereby improving its
sensitivity
E. Increases the magnetic field strength, thereby improving its
sensitivity
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Q2: A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 100Ω is used as an
ammeter using a resistance of 0.1Ω. The maximum deflection current
in the galvanometer is 100μA. Find the current in the circuit, so that
the ammeter shows maximum deflection.
SOLUTION
RG = 100Ω, RS = 0.1Ω, IG = 100μA = 100 x 10-6A,
From RG x IG = (I-IG) x Rs
100 x 100 x 10-6 = (I-100 x 10-6) x 0.1
1 x 10-2 = 0.1I -1 x 10-5
0.01 = 0.1I -0.00001
0.1I = 0.01+0.00001
0.1I =0.01001
I = 0.01001/0.1 = 0.1001A or 100.1mA
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Q3: A galvanometer coil of 40Ω resistance shows full range deflection
for a current of 4mA. How can this galvanometer be converted into a
voltmeter of range 0-12V?
SOLUTION
RG = 40Ω, IG = 4mA = 4 x 10-3A, V = 12V
From VT = IG(RG + R)
VT/IG = RG + R
R = VT/IG – RG
R = {12/(4 x 10-3 )} – 40
R = 3000 – 40
R = 2960Ω
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