EVOLUTION

Introduction

Plants and animals are believed to have undergone considerable changes over a prolonged period of time.
These changes are seen in the great differences and similarities amongst the plants and animals existing on
earth. New species of organisms continuously develop from earlier ancestral species by way of structural and
behavioural modifications to cope with changes in the environment. Several species of organisms also perish
and become extinct in the continual process of change occurring in nature. The concept of evolution explains
the overall gradual development which occurs in an orderly and sequential way in living organisms.

Evolution is defined as the development of more complex organisms from an already existing simpler
organism(s) over a long period of time; often million(s) of years.

A number of scientists had made valuable contributions to the concept of evolution. Some of their hypotheses
added together in form of theories.
There are numerous evidences in support of evolution. These evidences are drawn from the distribution of
animals in the continents, the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals, structural similarities in animals,
development similarities in animals, biochemical similarities in organisms and molecular records of
organisms. Evolution is an extremely slow process and a direct evidence in support of it is difficult.

Pre Darwinian theories of evolution

For a very long time, people had always speculated about the origin of life. These speculations are grouped
into three major theories as follows:

a. Theory of Eternity of the Present Condition

This theory suggested that there is no beginning or end to the universe. According to this theory, the living
organisms found on earth today have existed for several millions of years and would remain unchanged
throughout eternity
b. Theory of Special Creation
This theory was preached by religious bodies as a result of the account of the creation of plants, animals and
everything in this world by God.
c. Theory of catastrophism
This theory recognised worldwide catastrophes which brought about the death of animals in the past. The
death of these old animals on a massive scale gave rise to a new set of animals which occurred over millions
of years due to changes in environment conditions.

Lamarck's Theory of Evolution

Lamarck was a French scientist who lived between 1744 and 1829. He put forward an evolutionary theory
known as Lamarckism or the theory of use and disuse. The theory suggested that characteristics acquired by
organisms due to environmental changes can be inherited. Explanation of Lamarckism is as follows;
- changes in the environment create some needs in organisms
- to satisfy these needs, organisms develop some organs
- continuous use of the organs develop them more in size
- organs that were not used degenerate
- the newly developed organs acquired by the organisms are inherited by their offsprings.

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Lamarck explained that the long neck of the giraffe was caused by generations of neck stretching to
browse the tops of shrubs and trees in the absence of lower grasses. The major objection to this theory of
use and disuse is that acquired characters are not. inheritable Otherwise, a man that lost one of his hands
in a major accident would continue to produce one-handed children!

Darwin's Theory of Evolution

This theory of evolution by natural selection was put forward by an English scientist, Charles Darwin (1809 -
1882) and it became the most widely accepted of the evolutionary theories. Charles Darwin not only
supported the fact of evolution with powerful evidence, but also explained the mechanism of evolution. He
sailed round the world in a ship known as H.M.S. Beagle between 1831 - 1836, observed and collected
assorted types of living organisms. In 1835 while on the Galapagos Island (situated 900km west of Ecuador in
South America), Darwin observed variations in some birds known as finches. The finches on the mainland,
unlike those of the island, were all of one type having short straight beaks for crushing seeds. The finches on
the Galapagos Island were of thirteen species categorized into six main types, each with a beak specially
adapted for dealing with a particular kind of food (figure below). Darwin thought that the Galapagos finches
migrated from the mainland of South America. Whilst on the island, the birds became adapted to feeding on
different types of food and this caused differences in the structure of their beaks. This is a good example of
adaptive radiation. It was assumed that the ancestral stocks to the Galapagos finches migrated from the
mainland and in the absence of competition; they evolve to fill all the empty ecological niches which was
occupied on the mainland by other species of birds.
In 1859, Darwin published his theory of evolution by natural selection in a book entitled "on the origin of
species by means of Natural Selection". The book gave documented evidence in support of evolution.
Darwin postulated that individuals of a species differ from each other in the degree to which they are suited to
their environment. The poorly adapted individuals perish whilst the well adapted ones survive. The surviving
individuals pass on their beneficial characteristics to their offspring. This is the meaning of natural selection;
when nature selects the fit and rejects the unfit.

The summary of the book published by Darwin on evolution is as follows;

- Organisms tend to reproduce far above the number that survives, thus maintaining the size of their
populations at a fairly constant level.
- Members of a population continuously struggle for existence due to increased population size.
- The fittest individuals in a population will survive while the unfit are eliminated through death
- The fittest individuals pass on their favourable characteristics to the next generation
- There is a difference in the contribution of different members of a species to succeeding generations.
- Not all variation observed in members of a species are inheritable.

The concept of natural selection put forward by Darwin is summarized thus:

- Variations occur in the individuals of a population
- The environment acted upon the variations
-Those individuals and organisms whose variations enable them to be better adapted to the environment are
selected by nature.
- The selected organisms would have more offsprings in the next generation than the unfit individuals
- The increase in the proportion of selected individuals in relation to the unfit will standardize the
characteristics of that variation for the species.

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An evolutionary tree to indicate the relationship amongst the Galapagos finches. The beaks have
evolved to suit different kinds of diet; an adaptation to fill a wide range of ecological niches.

Contrast between Darwinism and Lamarckism

Darwin's Theory Lamarck's Theory

- Variations appear in a population by themselves - Variations appear in populations to satisfy
needs in the environment
- Environment selects from a population only - Environment maintains variations in
members with favourable variations or adaptations individuals as a way to satisfy the needs of the
environment
- Only hereditary variations are transmitted from - Variations (characters) acquired through use or
parents to offsprings disuse are transmitted from parents to offsprings
- The fittest species in any environment gives rise - Characters acquired by parents to satisfy needs
to the largest number of offspring in subsequent of environment are inherited by offspring
generation

Evidence in Support of Evolution

Darwin postulated that evolutionary process was an extremely slow process that could not be directly
observed.
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However, scientists from many areas of study have gathered a lot of indirect evidence to support the
theory of evolution. Some of the evidence in support of evolution came from the following sources; fossil
records, biochemical similarities, molecular records, Geographical distribution, comparative anatomy and
embryology.
Evolution Evidence from Fossil Records
Fossils are the remains of plants and animals that are preserved either in the form of entire organisms,
hard skeletal materials (bones, shells, teeth) in rocks or as mould cast. The study of fossils is known
as paleontology.
When fossils are arranged according to their age, the oldest rocks contain very few fossilized organisms
with simple structures whilst the younger and more modern rocks contain numerous fossilized organisms
in great varieties with complex structures. This shows an evolutionary trend from very simple organisms
in the distant past to a more complex and more recent forms. Fossil evidence alone is not sufficient to
support evolutionary concepts. What it does is to prove a progressive increase in the complexity of
organisms over time. It therefore disproves that species of organisms remain unaltered over time.
Most of the fossils discovered can be grouped with the living forms but it cannot be proved if they
actually represent the ancestors of the living species. By using a series of fossils, scientists were able to
trace the evolution of the modem horse named Equus (Figure below). from the 'clawnhorse' named
Eohippus 60 million years ago

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Evolution of the horse based on reconstructed fossil species obtained from successive rock
strata. The front views of the left forefeet and longitudinal sections of the teeth are shown.

Evolution Evidence from Biochemical Similarities

Similarities have been noticed in the chemical constitution and biochemical processes of all organisms.
Every organism contains molecules of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. The source of
energy for metabolic processes in the body of every living organism in ATP (Adenosine triphosphate).
The storage, expression and transmission of genetic information in living organisms are basically of the
same materials and processes. All these biochemical similarities point to a common ancestry for all
organisms.

Evolution Evidence from Molecular Records

The DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is the molecule of inheritance on which hereridary information are
stored in virtually every organism. This DNA is located in the nucleus of cells found in the body. The
present day idea of evolution centres on the alteration in the chemical structures of genes located on the
DNA. It is expected that the DNA of closely related species should reveal greater similarities than those
of unrelatedspecies. It is known that the DNA of man and that of the chimpanzee are 98 per cent alike.
This fact supports the idea of close evolutionary relationship between both organisms.

Evolution Evidence from Geographical Distribution of Animals

There are three continents located in the Southern Hemisphere namely Africa, South America and
Australia. On the world map, three other continents namely Europe, Asia and North America are located
in the Northern Hemisphere. Africa and South America are similar in terms of vegetation, relief and
climate, but the two continents have different species of animals. Elephants, short-tailed monkey, illamas,
panthers and jaguars.
In Australia are found a completely different and unique set of animals, which include the marsupials
(pouch mammals) e.g. Kangaroo, as well as the primitive monotremes (egg-laying mammals) e.g. spiny
anteater and duckbilled platypus..
In the Northern Hemisphere, the indigenous animal types found in Asia, Europe and North America are
very similar. These include bears, bisons, beavers, elks, reindeers and so on. Why are there similarities in
animals of the Northern Hemisphere and differences in animals of the Southern Hemisphere? The answer
lies partly in observing the world map. The three continents in the Southern Hemisphere (South
America, Africa and Australia) are separated by large oceans but those in the Northern Hemisphere
especially North America and Asia are separated by a shallow water body known as the Bering strait
which is less than 1 001cm wide. Geological evidence showed that the Bering strait was once occupied by
a land bridge linking Europe with Africa, Asia with Australia, and North America with South America in
geological past (Fig. 1.3). The differences and similarities observed in the continental distribution of
animals was explained on the idea that the ancestral animals originated from the northern continents of
Asia or North America and migrated to the three Southern continents by way of the natural land bridges.
When the land bridges became submerged to form straits, the migration stopped and the animals evolved
along their own lines. The animal types that succeeded in getting into the various southern continents
became isolated, underwent adaptive radiation (evolution of different forms to fill every habitat)
independently to give rise to marked differences in their animal composition.
In conclusion, the distribution of animals and plants as well as their occurrence in various forms in
different locations depend, to a large extent, on migration and isolation. Both phenomena are hinged on
the occurrence of natural barriers which restrict free movement. Migration of terrestrial (land) organisms
may be hindered by such barriers as water bodies, deserts, mountain ranges, extremes of temperatures and

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other climatic factors. Aquatic (water) organisms may be hindered from migrating by water currents,
tides and or water salinity. Isolation may cause independent evolution of life forms.

The World Map Showing continental connection by land bridges.

Arrows show the movement of animals in the past

The World Map Showing continental connection by ocean-separated continents. Arrows show the
movement of animals in the past

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Evolutionary Evidence from Comparative Anatomy

You have just read that widely separated groups of animals share a common ancestor. These animals are
expected to have similar structural features. The degree of structural resemblance between organisms should
tell us how closely related or otherwise organisms are in evolutionary terms.
Groups of organisms with very little in common may be taken to have diverged from the ancestral stock much
earlier in geological history than those sharing much structural similarities. Comparative anatomy seeks to
establish evolutionary relationships between organisms on the basis of structural similarities and differences.
Apart from allowing us to relate a group of diverse organisms to a common ancestor, comparative anatomy
together with fossil data can also help us to work out evolutionary sequence or pathways for group of
organisms.

Anatomical structures which may serve quite different functions in adult organisms but built on a similar
pattern, thus suggestion a common origin are described as homologous structures. Examples of homologous
structures are the pentadactyl (five digits) limbs of vertebrate. The variations in the pentadactyl limbs of
mammals show that numerous lines of evolution from an ancestral stock may lead to a modification of the
basic pattern to serve different functions. This modification will allow the descendants to fill various
ecological niches. This produces a form of divergent evolution which result in adaptive radiation. Adaptive
radiation produces certain common structural features in several organisms which arose from an ancestral
stock as found in the ancestor.
Similar structural features found in organisms having quite different ancestral origins are described as
analogous structures. Examples of analogous structures are legs of mammal and insects; wings of birds and
butterflies. Analogous structures are similar to each other not because of being derived from a common
ancestor, but because there is no other way to build the structures to perform the functions they are used for.
Analogous structures are produced from different lines of evolution as a form of convergent evolution.

A generalised pentadanyl limb possessed by all terrestrial vertebrates

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Illustration of adaptive radiation of the forelimb of mammals to demonstrate the principle of
homology. All forelimbs conform to the basic pentadactyl pattern but modified for different usages.

Evidence of Evolution from Embryology

Embryology is the study of the formation and development of organism in its earliest stages of development.
In many cases, the embryo of an organism looks like that of its ancestor at certain stages of development. The
human embryo for instance, has gill slits at a stage as in fish, later it develops tail. The human embryo is very
similar to the young embryo of other vertebrates which also pass through the gill-slit stage. This shows that all
vertebrates share a common ancestry. Vertebrate development (human inclusive) has evolved
by modifying and enlarging on existing genetic materials.

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Vertebrate embryos showing similarities

Modem views on Evolution

According to Darwin, evolutionary change is caused by natural selection acting through environmental
pressures on individuals in a population. Darwin did not know how inheritance works and as such he could
not explain the source of variation and how individual variations arise. The modem view of evolution which is
referred to as Neo-Darwinism is a combination of Darwin's theory with the present-day knowledge of genetics
and molecular biology. Currently, the process of evolution is described in line with the knowledge of genes
and chromosomes, which accounts for genetic variation upon which natural selection acts. Apart from natural
selection, scientists have come to identify mutation, gene flow and genetic drift as additional natural forces,
acting either alone or in combination, to determine the rate and course of evolutionary change. Evolution is
now seen in a different perspective from the survival or death of individuals but in the perpetuation or
elimination of the genes which they carry. Individual organisms do not evolve as they retain the same genetic
make-up throughout their lives and pass on their genes to the next generation. Evolution only occurs with
populations of a species and this happens when the genetic content of the gene pool changes.
Below is the explanation of the modem concepts relating to the occurrence of evolution.

Genes
A gene is a segment of a DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) molecule that is responsible for the inheritance of
characteristics. Genes are located on chromosomes which are found inside the nuclei of cells. All the
information for the inheritable characteristic of an individual are contained in genes.
During cell division, genes are duplicated along with chromosomes to ensure that each of the daughter cells
have identical set of genes as the parent cell. The genes of parents are passed into their offsprings through the
gametes during sexual reproduction. Such transfer of genes occurs in form of encoded information in the
sequence of bases in the DNA molecule. Genes act by controlling the synthesis of polypeptide chains that
form proteins. These proteins are responsible for the formation of structures in organisms.

Mutations
These are uncontrolled changes occurring in DNA resulting in the alteration of genetic information in specific
organisms. Though a very rare occurrence, mutation is the only process that changes genes and once it occurs, it
introduces new characteristics into the population of organisms. Mutation may occur in body cells in which case it is
known as somatic mutation and cannot be inherited by the offsprings. Mutation may also occur during gametes (sex
cells) formation, in which case it is known as germ line mutation, which can be inherited. Such a germ line mutation
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provides the raw material for evolution, since it leads to the inheritance of new characteristics which might or might not
be manifested in the parental organism.

Gene Flow
The recombination and spreading of genes wihch occur when members of the same or different populations of the same
species interbreed (sexual reproduction) is known as gene flow Gene flow cannot occur between different species
because they cannot interbreed. The total gene content of a species is known as its gene pool. When big changes occur
in the gene content of a gene pool, new species of organisms are produced.
The genetic variations observed in individuals of a population are caused either largely by gene recombination or rarely
by mutation. These variations are important because evolution acts through them.

Genetic Drift
When, in a small population by way of chance and not by intention, some genes spread more than other genes, then we
say that there is a genetic drift. Genetic drift is important in the evolution of species in small islands.

Formation of New Species

New species of organisms can only be formed through the modification of existing species. This happens in two ways
as follows;
Transformation of one species into another species. In this case, the ancestral species becomes extinct and is replaced by
a new species. New species evolve as branches from an existing species. This is the process of speciation and is
responsible for the diversity of organisms.
Speciation normally follows the isolation of the population of a given species to the extent that interbreeding is not
possible. This causes a stoppage of gene flow between the populations. Gene flow can be stopped by geographical
barriers (mountains, seas) or by other barriers as differences in mating behaviour, genetic incompatibility, differences in
structure of external genitals hindering mating, differences in breeding seasons

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