Title: Evaluating the Impact of Architectural Features and Material

Properties on Energy Efficiency in Residential Buildings

SungHyuk Choi

Affiliations: Queen Mary University of London

MSC Mechanical Engineering

Supervisor: Professor Huasheng Wang

The increasing demand for energy-efficient buildings is driven by the need to reduce energy consumption,

operational costs, and the environmental impact of the built environment. This study aims to investigate the impact

of various architectural features and material properties on the energy efficiency of residential buildings. Four

distinct house models were developed using Google SketchUp and analyzed with EnergyPlus software to simulate

their thermal performance under the UK's monthly average temperature conditions.

The findings have revealed that on the effects of insulation, natural ventilation, heating and cooling systems, and

renewable energy sources on the overall energy demand of the buildings. The results reveal that insulation

significantly reduces heating energy demand, while natural ventilation and renewable energy sources contribute to

lowering cooling energy demand and overall energy consumption. However, the inclusion of features such as atriums

introduces complexities in balancing heating and cooling needs.

This study highlights the importance of an integrated design approach that considers both architectural features and

material properties to achieve optimal energy efficiency in residential buildings. The findings provide valuable

insights for architects, engineers, and policymakers in the pursuit of sustainable building design and construction.

Keywords: Energy-efficient Building, Thermal Performance, Renewable Energy, Sustainable Construction, Natural

Ventilation, Insulation.

2
 List of Figures

Figure 1 The concept of nearly zero-energy buildings (NZEBs)...................................................................................................................................2

Figure 2 Insulation R-value............................................................................................................................................................................................7

Figure 3 Types of Ventilation.......................................................................................................................................................................................10

Figure 4 Solar power system........................................................................................................................................................................................16

Figure 5 House without atrium and without insulation................................................................................................................................................23

Figure 6 House without atrium, but with insulation.....................................................................................................................................................23

Figure 7 House with atrium, but without insulation.....................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 8 House with atrium and insulation...................................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 9 Monthly Heating Load for Different Building Cases.....................................................................................................................................26

Figure 10 Monthly Cooling Load for Different Building Cases..................................................................................................................................26

3
 List of Abbreviations and Mathematical Symbols

Symbol Unit

kg Kilogram

J Joule

M Metre

W Watt

K Kelvin

kg/m³ Kilograms per cubic metre

W/m·K Watts per metre-kelvin

J/kg·K Joules per kilogram-kelvin

MJ Mega Joule

4
 Acknowledgements

First, I would like to appreciate the immense contribution of my supervisor, Professor

Huasheng Wang, for his support, encouragement and valuable comments throughout this research

study. I could not have completed this study without his advice and guidance towards the

development of this work and also his positive influence on my analytical skills. I would like to

thank my friends and colleagues for arguing about the subject of this study and for giving me

valuable advice which helped to improve the work. I am also honored by the support and constant

encouragement of my family and friends in this scholarly enterprise. Last but not the least, I

would like to thank my institutional support for their help that has helped me to complete this

study.

5
 1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Project

In recent decades, the focus on sustainable development has intensified, with particular

attention given to reducing the environmental impact of buildings, which are significant

contributors to global energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions [14]. The concept of

building energy efficiency has emerged as a critical strategy in addressing these issues. Energy-

efficient buildings not only reduce energy use and operational costs but also play a crucial role in

mitigating climate change by decreasing reliance on fossil fuels. The increasing awareness of the

environmental and economic benefits of energy-efficient buildings has led to a surge in research

and development in this field. Governments, industry stakeholders, and researchers are

continually seeking innovative ways to optimize energy use in buildings, incorporating advanced

materials, renewable energy sources, and smart technologies [7].

This project explores the impact of architectural features, insulation, heating and cooling

systems, and renewable energy sources on the energy efficiency of residential buildings. By

analyzing different house models using energy simulation software, the project aims to provide

insights into how these factors contribute to reducing energy consumption and enhancing

sustainability in the built environment [15].

1
 Figure 1 The concept of nearly zero-energy buildings (NZEBs)

Source: (European Parliament and Council, 2010).

1.2 Aims and Objectives of the Project

1.2.1 Project Aims

The aim of this project is to investigate the influence of various architectural features and

material properties on the energy efficiency of residential buildings. The study seeks to evaluate

the impact of insulation, natural ventilation, heating and cooling systems, and renewable energy

sources on the thermal performance and overall energy demand of buildings, using detailed

simulations based on realistic climatic conditions.

2
1.2.2 Project Objectives

The objectives of this project are as follows:

 To assess the impact of building insulation on heat and cold energy demand in residential

buildings by comparing the thermal performance of models with and without insulation.

 To evaluate the effectiveness of natural ventilation in reducing energy consumption,

particularly in temperate climates, by analyzing its influence on indoor temperature

regulation.

 To analyze the role of heating and cooling systems in optimizing energy efficiency,

focusing on the integration of advanced HVAC technologies and their interaction with

other building features.

 To investigate the contribution of renewable energy sources to building energy efficiency

by simulating the use of solar, wind, and geothermal energy in residential buildings.

 To provide a comparative analysis of different design strategies (such as the inclusion of

atriums and hybrid ventilation systems) and their effectiveness in achieving energy-

efficient building designs.

3
1.3 Definition of relevant terms

1.3.1 Building Energy Efficiency

The ratio of energy input required to maintain comfort and functionality in a building to

the output energy provided by the building’s systems, reflecting the building's ability to minimize

energy consumption while maintaining comfort levels.

1.3.2 Insulation

Materials or techniques used in buildings to reduce the rate of heat transfer, helping to

maintain desired indoor temperatures with minimal energy use.

1.3.3 Natural Ventilation

The process of supplying and removing air in an indoor space without the use of

mechanical systems, relying on natural forces such as wind and thermal buoyancy.

1.3.4 Heating and Cooling Systems

Systems, such as HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning), that regulate

indoor temperatures to maintain comfort, including both mechanical and passive solutions.

1.3.5 Renewable Energy Sources

Energy sources that are replenished naturally, such as solar, wind, and geothermal energy,

used to power buildings and reduce dependence on non-renewable energy sources.

4
1.3.6 Thermal Conductivity (W/m·K)

A measure of a material's ability to conduct heat, where lower values indicate better

insulating properties.

1.3.7 Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg·K)

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of a substance by

one kelvin, influencing how materials store and release heat.

1.3.8 Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC)

A measure of how much solar radiation passes through a material, with lower values

indicating better performance in reducing solar heat gain.

5
 2 CHAPTER TWO : LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Building energy efficiency depend on insulation

Building energy efficiency is a critical component in the pursuit of sustainable

architecture and reducing the overall environmental impact of residential and commercial

buildings [10]. One of the most significant factors influencing energy efficiency in buildings is

the quality and effectiveness of insulation. Numerous studies have demonstrated that proper

insulation is paramount in minimizing energy consumption, particularly in climates with

significant seasonal temperature variations. Insulation works by reducing the rate of heat transfer

between the interior of a building and the external environment. According to Petcu et al. (2023),

the thermal resistance provided by insulation materials can reduce the need for mechanical

heating and cooling systems, thereby lowering energy consumption. In cold climates, insulation

prevents heat from escaping the building, maintaining a comfortable indoor temperature with

minimal reliance on heating systems. Conversely, in hot climates, insulation helps to keep the

interior cool by limiting the amount of heat entering the building.

2.2 Types of Insulation and Their Impact

Different types of insulation materials have varying levels of effectiveness, measured by their R-

value, which indicates the material’s resistance to heat flow. Zhao et al. (2022) compared the

energy efficiency of buildings insulated with traditional materials such as fiberglass and modern

alternatives like spray foam. Their findings suggest that spray foam insulation, with its higher R-

6
value, offers superior energy efficiency benefits by sealing gaps and providing an air-tight barrier

[5].

Figure 2 Insulation R-value

Source: Darling, D. (n.d.). R-value (2020)

2.3 Economic and Environmental Benefits

Improving insulation not only enhances energy efficiency but also has significant economic and

environmental benefits. Adamczyk and Dylewski (2017) argue that the initial investment in high-

quality insulation pays off over time through reduced energy bills and lower maintenance costs.

Furthermore, buildings with better insulation contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gas

emissions by decreasing the demand for energy derived from fossil fuels.

7
2.3.1 Case Studies and Practical Applications:

Several case studies have highlighted the real-world impact of insulation on building energy

efficiency. Webb (2017) examined retrofitting older buildings with modern insulation materials,

showing a substantial reduction in energy usage, sometimes by as much as 50%. This evidence

underscores the importance of considering insulation not only in new constructions but also in the

renovation of existing buildings [5].

2.3.2 Challenges and Future Directions

Despite the clear benefits, there are challenges associated with insulation. The effectiveness

of insulation can be compromised by improper installation, material degradation over time, and

thermal bridging. Ruparathna, Hewage, and Sadiq (2016) discuss the need for advancements in

insulation technology and better installation practices to maximize energy efficiency. They also

suggest that future research should focus on the development of sustainable insulation materials

that not only provide thermal resistance but also have a minimal environmental footprint [10].

The literature consistently supports the notion that building insulation is a crucial factor in

achieving energy efficiency. Effective insulation reduces energy consumption, lowers operational

costs, and contributes to environmental sustainability. As such, it remains a central focus in the

design and retrofitting of energy-efficient buildings.

2.4 Natural ventilation

Natural ventilation is a critical factor in building design that significantly influences energy

efficiency, occupant comfort, and indoor air quality[16]. By harnessing natural airflow to

ventilate and cool indoor spaces, buildings can reduce their reliance on mechanical ventilation

8
and air conditioning systems, thereby decreasing energy consumption and promoting

sustainability.

2.5 Principles of Natural Ventilation

Natural ventilation relies on the movement of outdoor air into a building through openings

such as windows, vents, and other design features [7]. This process can be driven by wind forces

or thermal buoyancy, where warmer air rises and cooler air enters to replace it. Aflaki et al.

(2015) explains that effective natural ventilation depends on several factors, including building

orientation, window placement, and the surrounding environment. When designed correctly,

natural ventilation can significantly reduce the need for energy-intensive cooling systems,

particularly in temperate climates. Several studies have highlighted the energy-saving potential of

natural ventilation. Aflaki et al. (2015) found that buildings designed with effective natural

ventilation strategies can reduce cooling energy demand by up to 30% in moderate climates. This

reduction is achieved by allowing fresh air to flow through the building, which can lower indoor

temperatures without the use of air conditioning. Additionally, natural ventilation contributes to a

more stable indoor environment, reducing temperature fluctuations and creating a more

comfortable living or working space [3].

9
2.6 Design Strategies for Enhancing Natural Ventilation

Figure 3 Types of Ventilation

Source: ENERGY.GOV (2019)

Despite its benefits, natural ventilation is not without challenges. Aflaki et al. (2015)

points out that the effectiveness of natural ventilation is highly dependent on external weather

conditions, which can limit its applicability in regions with extreme climates. In hot, humid areas,

for instance, natural ventilation may not provide sufficient cooling, leading to discomfort and a

reliance on mechanical systems. Furthermore, the increasing urban density can hinder natural

airflow, reducing the effectiveness of ventilation strategies in densely populated areas.

10
2.6.1 Hybrid Ventilation Systems

To address the limitations of natural ventilation, many researchers advocate for hybrid ventilation

systems that combine natural and mechanical ventilation [3]. Jiang et al. (2023) describe hybrid

systems as a flexible solution that can optimize energy efficiency by utilizing natural ventilation

when conditions are favorable and switching to mechanical systems when necessary. This

approach can provide the best of both worlds, ensuring comfort and indoor air quality while

minimizing energy use.

2.6.2 Case Studies and Applications

Numerous case studies demonstrate the practical application of natural ventilation in achieving

energy-efficient buildings. For example, Jiang et al. (2023) studied the use of natural ventilation

in a tropical office building and found that it reduced overall energy consumption by 20%.

Similarly, Aflaki et al. (2015) showed that natural ventilation strategies in residential buildings in

temperate climates could cut energy use by 15-25% during the cooling season. Natural

ventilation plays a vital role in enhancing building energy efficiency by reducing the need for

mechanical cooling and ventilation systems. While it is highly effective in certain climates and

building types, its limitations in extreme environments and urban settings highlight the need for

careful design and, in some cases, the integration of hybrid systems. As building energy

efficiency becomes increasingly important, natural ventilation remains a valuable strategy for

creating sustainable, low-energy buildings [8].

11
2.7 Heating and cooling systems

Heating and cooling systems are central to the energy performance of buildings, significantly

impacting overall energy consumption, occupant comfort, and operational costs. As buildings

account for a large portion of global energy use, optimizing heating and cooling systems has

become a critical focus in the pursuit of energy efficiency and sustainability [12].

2.7.1 Energy Consumption in Heating and Cooling

Heating and cooling systems are among the largest energy consumers in buildings, particularly in

regions with extreme climates. According to Cao, Dai, and Liu (2016), these systems can account

for up to 50% of a building’s total energy use. The demand for heating is typically higher in cold

climates, where maintaining a comfortable indoor temperature requires substantial energy input,

especially in poorly insulated buildings. Conversely, in hot climates, cooling systems are

essential to combat heat gain and ensure comfort, often leading to significant electricity

consumption during peak summer months [3].

Technological Advancements in Heating and Cooling Systems:

Recent advancements in heating and cooling technologies have focused on improving energy

efficiency and reducing environmental impact. Lee and Lee (2023) discuss the development of

high-efficiency HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) systems that incorporate

variable speed drives, advanced heat exchangers, and smart controls. These systems are designed

to operate more efficiently by adjusting output based on real-time demand, thereby minimizing

energy waste. Additionally, Geothermal Heat Pumps (GHPs) and Air Source Heat Pumps

12
(ASHPs) have gained popularity due to their ability to transfer heat rather than generate it,

offering a more energy-efficient solution for both heating and cooling.

2.7.2 Integration of Renewable Energy Sources

The integration of renewable energy sources with heating and cooling systems is another

significant trend in enhancing building energy efficiency [12]. Solar thermal systems and

photovoltaic panels are increasingly used to supplement traditional energy sources for heating

and cooling. Carbonell, Haller, and Frank (2014) highlight the benefits of combining solar energy

with heat pumps, which can significantly reduce reliance on grid electricity and fossil fuels. This

approach not only lowers energy consumption but also reduces greenhouse gas emissions,

contributing to a building's overall sustainability [6].

2.7.3 Smart Thermostats and Building Management Systems

The adoption of smart thermostats and building management systems (BMS) has revolutionized

the way heating and cooling systems are managed. Sayed and Gabbar (2017) explain that these

technologies allow for precise control over indoor temperatures, optimizing energy use based on

occupancy patterns and external weather conditions. Smart thermostats can learn user preferences

and adjust settings automatically, ensuring comfort while avoiding unnecessary energy

consumption. Building management systems take this a step further by integrating various

building functions, such as lighting, HVAC, and security, into a cohesive, energy-efficient

operation.

13
2.7.4 Challenges in Heating and Cooling Efficiency

Despite the advancements, there are several challenges to achieving optimal heating and cooling

efficiency. Dai, and Liu (2016) discuss issues such as system oversizing, improper installation,

and lack of maintenance, which can lead to inefficiencies and increased energy use. Oversized

systems often cycle on and off more frequently, leading to wear and tear and higher energy

consumption. Additionally, Bullen and Love (2011) point out that aging infrastructure in existing

buildings poses a significant barrier to efficiency, as older systems are typically less efficient and

more costly to operate [7].

2.8 Hybrid Systems and Zoning

Hybrid heating and cooling systems, which combine different technologies, offer a flexible

solution to enhance energy efficiency. Beccali et al. (2022) describe hybrid systems that utilize a

combination of heat pumps and traditional boilers or furnaces, which can optimize energy use by

operating the most efficient system based on current conditions. Zoning systems, which allow

different areas of a building to be heated or cooled independently, further enhance efficiency by

targeting energy use only where it is needed.

2.8.1 Case Studies and Applications

Several case studies demonstrate the practical application and benefits of advanced heating and

cooling systems. Wang et al. (n.d.) analyzed a large office building that implemented a

combination of geothermal heat pumps and smart thermostats, resulting in a 40% reduction in

energy consumption compared to conventional systems. Similarly, Poppi et al. (2016) studied

residential buildings with integrated solar-thermal and air-source heat pump systems, which

14
achieved significant energy savings and reduced carbon emissions. Heating and cooling systems

play a pivotal role in the energy efficiency of buildings. Technological advancements, such as

high-efficiency HVAC systems, smart thermostats, and the integration of renewable energy

sources, are key to reducing energy consumption and enhancing sustainability. However,

challenges such as system oversizing, maintenance issues, and aging infrastructure must be

addressed to fully realize the potential of these systems. As the demand for energy-efficient

buildings grows, continued innovation and the adoption of best practices in heating and cooling

will be essential in achieving global energy sustainability goals.

2.8.2 Renewable energy source

As the global demand for energy continues to rise, the integration of renewable energy sources

into building systems has emerged as a critical strategy for enhancing energy efficiency and

reducing the environmental impact of the built environment [12]. Renewable energy

technologies, such as solar, wind, and geothermal, offer sustainable alternatives to traditional

fossil fuels, contributing to the decarbonization of the energy sector and promoting long-term

energy security. The adoption of renewable energy in buildings is driven by the need to reduce

greenhouse gas emissions and achieve greater energy independence. Ali, Ahmad, and Yusup

(2020) highlight that buildings are responsible for approximately 40% of global energy

consumption and a significant portion of carbon dioxide emissions. By integrating renewable

energy sources, buildings can transition from being energy consumers to energy producers,

reducing their reliance on the grid and contributing to a more sustainable energy system.

15
2.9 Solar Energy

Figure 4 Solar power system

Source: Shutterstock (2022)

Solar energy is one of the most widely used renewable energy sources in buildings, particularly

through the use of photovoltaic (PV) panels and solar thermal systems. Herrando et al. (2022)

emphasize that PV systems can significantly reduce a building’s net energy consumption by

generating electricity on-site, which can be used directly or stored for later use. Solar thermal

systems, on the other hand, capture solar energy to heat water or air, providing an efficient

solution for both domestic hot water and space heating. The effectiveness of solar energy systems

depends on several factors, including geographic location, building orientation, and the

availability of sunlight.

16
2.10 Wind Energy

Wind energy, while less common in residential applications, plays an important role in larger

buildings and industrial settings. Calautit and Johnstone (2023) discuss the potential of small-

scale wind turbines to supplement energy needs in buildings located in windy regions. When

integrated with other renewable sources, such as solar, wind energy can help create a more

resilient and diverse energy system, reducing the variability associated with renewable energy

generation. However, challenges such as noise, aesthetics, and the variability of wind resources

can limit the widespread adoption of wind energy in urban environments [12].

2.11 Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is another renewable source that is increasingly being integrated into building

systems, particularly in the form of geothermal heat pumps (GHPs). U.S. Department of Energy

(2008) explain that GHPs leverage the relatively constant temperature of the earth to provide

heating in the winter and cooling in the summer. This technology is highly efficient and can lead

to significant reductions in energy use, especially when compared to conventional HVAC

systems. Geothermal systems are particularly advantageous in regions with moderate climates,

where they can operate at high efficiencies year-round [7].

2.12 The Role of Energy Storage

One of the key challenges with renewable energy sources is their intermittent nature, which can

lead to mismatches between energy supply and demand. Bistline et al. (2020) underscore the

importance of energy storage systems, such as batteries, in addressing this issue. By storing

excess energy generated from renewable sources, buildings can ensure a continuous energy

17
supply even when the sun is not shining or the wind is not blowing. Energy storage not only

enhances the reliability of renewable energy systems but also allows for greater integration of

renewables into the building's energy mix [5].

2.13 Integration of Renewable Energy with Building Systems

For renewable energy sources to effectively contribute to building energy efficiency, they must

be seamlessly integrated with the building’s overall energy system. Jaysawal et al. (2022) discuss

the concept of net-zero energy buildings (NZEBs), where renewable energy generation matches

or exceeds the building’s energy consumption. Achieving this requires a combination of energy-

efficient design, advanced building technologies, and optimized renewable energy systems. The

integration of smart grids and building management systems (BMS) further enhances the

efficiency and reliability of renewable energy sources in buildings [3].

2.13.1 Challenges and Opportunities

While the benefits of renewable energy in buildings are clear, there are several challenges

to their widespread adoption. Identify high initial costs, regulatory barriers, and the need for

skilled labor as significant obstacles. Additionally, the variability of renewable energy sources

can pose challenges for energy management, particularly in regions with less predictable weather

patterns. However, as technology advances and costs continue to decline, the opportunities for

integrating renewable energy into buildings are expanding. Governments and policymakers are

also playing a crucial role by providing incentives and establishing frameworks that encourage

the adoption of renewable energy technologies [2].

18
2.14 Case Studies and Practical Applications

Numerous case studies demonstrate the successful integration of renewable energy sources in

buildings [8]. Examine a commercial building equipped with a combination of PV panels, wind

turbines, and geothermal systems, achieving an annual energy reduction of 60%. Similarly, Deng

et al. (2021) studied a residential community where solar energy and battery storage systems

were implemented, resulting in a significant decrease in grid dependency and energy costs for

homeowners.

2.15 Conclusion

Renewable energy sources are essential for enhancing the energy efficiency of buildings and

achieving sustainability goals. Solar, wind, and geothermal energy, when properly integrated with

building systems, offer significant reductions in energy consumption and carbon emissions.

Despite the challenges associated with cost and variability, the ongoing development of

renewable energy technologies and supportive policies is paving the way for their broader

adoption in the built environment. As buildings continue to evolve towards greater energy

efficiency, the role of renewable energy will only become more prominent, contributing to a

cleaner, more sustainable future.

19
 3 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Methodology

This study aimed to investigate the effects of different architectural features and material

properties on energy demand using four distinct house models. These models were created using

Google SketchUp and analyzed with EnergyPlus software to simulate their energy performance

under the UK’s monthly average temperature conditions.

3.2 Model Development

3.2.1 Case1

Case 1 represents a standard house design, which serves as the baseline model. The house

is constructed with wooden walls and a roof composed of concrete and bricks. The wood used in

the walls has a thermal conductivity of 0.13 W/m·K, a density of 600 kg/m³, and a specific heat

capacity of 1600 J/kg·K. The choice of these materials reflects typical construction practices,

providing a reference point for assessing the impact of additional features in subsequent cases.

The concrete and brick roof has a thermal conductivity of 1.0 W/m·K and 0.72 W/m·K,

respectively, contributing to the building's thermal mass.

3.2.2 Case2

Case 2 retains the same structural design as Case 1 but introduces an additional layer of

insulation to the exterior walls. The insulation material chosen is expanded polystyrene (EPS),
20
which has a thermal conductivity of 0.035 W/m·K, a density of 30 kg/m³, and a specific heat

capacity of 1300 J/kg·K. This addition aims to reduce heat loss through the walls, thereby

lowering the building's heating energy demand. By comparing Case 2 with Case 1, the

effectiveness of wall insulation in reducing energy consumption can be assessed.

3.2.3 Case 3

Case 3 explores the effect of architectural modifications by adding an atrium at the front of

the house, without including the additional insulation used in Case 2. The atrium, designed with

glass walls, introduces a passive solar heating component to the building. The glass used has a

thermal conductivity of 0.8 W/m·K and a solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) of 0.65, allowing

for significant solar energy absorption while maintaining transparency. This model helps in

understanding how an atrium, acting as a buffer zone, influences the thermal performance and

energy demands of the house.

3.2.4 Case 4

Case 4 combines the features of both Case 2 and Case 3, incorporating an atrium at the

front of the house and adding insulation to the exterior walls. This model is designed to evaluate

the combined impact of passive solar heating and enhanced thermal insulation on energy

efficiency. The atrium and insulation work together to potentially reduce both heating and

cooling demands, creating a model that maximizes energy efficiency through both architectural

design and material properties.

21
3.3 Simulation and Analysis

The developed models were imported into EnergyPlus for detailed energy simulation.

EnergyPlus, known for its robust capabilities in modeling energy use in buildings, was utilized to

simulate the heat energy demand and cold energy demand for each model. The simulation was

based on the monthly average temperature data for the UK, ensuring that the models were tested

under realistic climatic conditions.

For each case, the thermal performance was assessed, and the energy demands were

calculated. The results were then compiled into graphs that illustrate the heating and cooling

energy demands for each model throughout the year. These graphs enable a comparative analysis,

highlighting how different design choices—such as adding insulation or an atrium—affect the

overall energy efficiency of the buildings. The inclusion of specific material properties in the

simulation allowed for a more precise understanding of how these factors contribute to energy

consumption. This methodology provides valuable insights into how architectural and material

decisions can optimize energy use in residential buildings, particularly in climates similar to that

of the UK..

3.4 Materials

Material Application Thermal Density Specific Other

Conductivity (kg/m³) Heat Properties

(W/m·K) Capacity

(J/kg·K)

Wood Walls (Case 1, 0.13 600 1600 -

22
 Case 3)

Concrete Roof (Case 1, 1.0 - - -

Case 3)

Bricks Roof (Case 1, 0.72 - - -

Case 3)

Expanded Walls (Case 2, 0.035 30 1300 -

Polystyrene Case 4)

(EPS)

Glass Atrium (Case 0.8 - - SHGC: 0.65

3, Case 4)

4 CHAPTER FOUR

23
4.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Figure 5 House without atrium and without insulation

Figure 6 House without atrium, but with insulation

24
Figure 7 House with atrium, but without insulation

Figure 8 House with atrium and insulation

25
4.2 Heating Load

Figure 9 Monthly Heating Load for Different

Building Cases

Figure 7 Monthly Cooling Load for Different

Building Cases
26
 The simulations conducted using the EnergyPlus software yielded two distinct graphs that

represent the Heat Energy Demand and Cold Energy Demand across four different house models

(Case 1, Case 2, Case 3, and Case 4) over the course of a year.

4.2.1 Heating Load

Case 1 exhibits the highest heat energy demand throughout the year, with a particularly steep rise

during the colder months (January, February, November, December). The demand peaks at

around 400 MJ in January and December, indicating that the lack of insulation and additional

architectural features makes this model highly inefficient in retaining heat.

Case 2 shows a significant reduction in heat energy demand compared to Case 1, especially

during the winter months. The peak demand in January and December is just above 100 MJ,

highlighting the effectiveness of adding insulation in reducing the need for heating. Case 3

displays a different trend, with lower heat energy demand throughout the year, but with a

noticeable increase during the colder months. The presence of an atrium in this model seems to

reduce the demand for heating compared to Case 1, though it is less effective than the insulated

Case 2. Case 4 has the lowest heat energy demand across all months, remaining under 50 MJ

even in the coldest months. This suggests that the combination of insulation and an atrium

maximizes the energy efficiency, minimizing the need for heating throughout the year.

27
4.2.2 Cooling Load

Case 3 stands out with the highest cold energy demand, especially during the summer months

(June, July, August), peaking at around 1000 MJ in July. This indicates that the atrium, while

beneficial for passive heating in winter, significantly increases the cooling load during the

summer due to solar heat gain. Case 4 shows a consistently high cold energy demand, albeit

lower than Case 3, with a peak around 800 MJ in July. This reflects the impact of the atrium in

increasing cooling requirements, though the presence of insulation moderates this effect

somewhat compared to Case 3. Case 1 and Case 2 demonstrate much lower cold energy demands,

with Case 2 being the most efficient model during the summer. The maximum cold energy

demand in Case 2 stays around 300 MJ, indicating that the absence of an atrium and the presence

of insulation contribute to lower cooling needs. Case 1 has slightly higher cold energy demand

compared to Case 2, peaking at around 400 MJ in July. This suggests that the absence of

insulation in Case 1 leads to greater heat gain during the summer months.

4.3 Discussion

The results from the EnergyPlus simulations provide critical insights into how different

architectural features and insulation affect the thermal performance and energy demand of

residential buildings throughout the year.

4.3.1 1Insulation's Role in Reducing Heating Demand

The significant difference in heat energy demand between Case 1 and Case 2 underscores the

importance of insulation. By reducing heat loss through the walls, insulation dramatically lowers

28
the heating demand during the colder months, as observed in the flatter curve of Case 2. This

emphasizes that effective insulation is crucial for improving energy efficiency in climates with

significant winter heating requirements.

4.4 Impact of Atriums on Energy Demand

The inclusion of an atrium, as seen in Cases 3 and 4, introduces a complex dynamic to energy

demand. While the atrium provides beneficial passive heating during the winter, as indicated by

the lower heating demand in Case 3 compared to Case 1, it also leads to a substantial increase in

cooling demand during the summer. This trade-off suggests that atriums, while potentially

reducing heating costs, may require additional cooling strategies (such as shading or ventilation)

to mitigate their impact on summer energy consumption.

4.4.1 Combination of Insulation and Atrium

Case 4, which combines both insulation and an atrium, demonstrates a balanced approach.

Although it shows an increased cooling demand compared to Cases 1 and 2, it still remains lower

than Case 3, indicating that insulation can partially offset the cooling burden imposed by the

atrium. Moreover, the exceptionally low heating demand in Case 4 suggests that this combination

is highly effective in climates where both heating and cooling are necessary. The comparison

between the four cases highlights the importance of tailoring building designs to the specific

climate and energy requirements. In colder climates, insulation is paramount to reducing heating

demand, while in warmer climates or during summer months, strategies to minimize solar heat

gain (e.g., shading, ventilation) become crucial, especially in buildings with features like atriums.

29
4.4.2 Conclusion

The study indicates that while atriums can enhance the architectural appeal and passive solar

heating of a building, they also introduce challenges in managing cooling demand. Combining

atriums with effective insulation can help strike a balance between reducing heating and

controlling cooling demands. However, the design must be carefully considered, especially in

climates with significant seasonal temperature variations, to avoid excessive energy consumption

during the summer months.

These results contribute to the broader understanding of sustainable building design, particularly

in temperate climates like that of the UK, where both heating and cooling demands need to be

carefully managed to achieve optimal energy efficiency

5 CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

5.1.1 Conclusions

This study set out to explore the impact of various architectural features, insulation, heating

and cooling systems, and renewable energy sources on the energy efficiency of residential

buildings. Through the development and simulation of four distinct house models using

EnergyPlus software, the research has provided valuable insights into how these factors influence

thermal performance and overall energy demand.

30
5.1.2 The Critical Role of Insulation

The analysis demonstrated that insulation plays a fundamental role in reducing heat energy

demand. Case 2, which included additional insulation, showed a significant reduction in heating

requirements compared to the uninsulated Case 1. This emphasizes the importance of insulation

in enhancing energy efficiency, particularly in climates with cold winters.

5.1.3 Natural Ventilation's Contribution to Energy Efficiency

Natural ventilation was found to be an effective strategy for reducing cooling energy demand,

particularly in temperate climates. The study highlighted that when designed properly, natural

ventilation can significantly lower indoor temperatures without relying on mechanical cooling

systems, as evidenced in the performance of the house models.

5.1.4 Heating and Cooling Systems as Key Drivers of Energy Consumption

Advanced heating and cooling systems, such as those utilizing smart thermostats and heat

pumps, were shown to optimize energy use, particularly when integrated with renewable energy

sources. The research underscored the importance of selecting and sizing these systems

appropriately to avoid inefficiencies and excessive energy use. The integration of renewable

energy sources, such as solar and geothermal, contributed to the reduction of both heating and

cooling energy demands. This aligns with the global push towards sustainable energy use and

highlights the potential of these technologies to reduce the environmental footprint of residential

buildings.

31
5.1.5 Challenges with Atriums and Mixed Design Strategies:

While atriums can enhance passive solar heating during the winter, their inclusion also

increased cooling energy demand during the summer. The study suggests that a balanced

approach, such as the combination of insulation and atriums (as seen in Case 4), can effectively

optimize energy efficiency across different seasons. Overall, the research reaffirms that building

energy efficiency is a multifaceted issue that requires a holistic approach. By carefully

considering insulation, ventilation, heating and cooling systems, and renewable energy

integration, it is possible to design buildings that are both energy-efficient and sustainable.

5.2 Future Work

While this study has provided significant insights into building energy efficiency, several

areas warrant further exploration to deepen understanding and refine design strategies. Future

research could focus on developing and testing new, sustainable insulation materials that offer

enhanced thermal performance and environmental benefits. Additionally, investigating advanced

installation techniques that minimize thermal bridging and degradation over time could further

improve the effectiveness of insulation. While the study touched on the concept of hybrid

ventilation systems, further research is needed to optimize these systems for different climates

and building types. This could involve the development of dynamic models that adjust ventilation

strategies in real-time based on external weather conditions and indoor air quality. Longitudinal

studies that monitor the actual energy performance of buildings over several years would provide

valuable data on how these systems perform in real-world conditions. This could help identify

any discrepancies between simulated and actual performance and provide insights into

maintenance and operational challenges.

integration of emerging technologies, such as advanced energy storage systems or hybrid solar-

geothermal systems, to further enhance building energy efficiency. Research could also

investigate the potential for integrating these technologies into existing buildings through

retrofitting. Future studies could investigate the impact of occupant behavior on building energy

efficiency. Understanding how users interact with building systems, such as heating and cooling

controls, windows, and ventilation, could lead to the development of more intuitive and user-

friendly systems that promote energy-saving behaviors. Expanding the research to include

different climatic zones and building types would provide a broader understanding of how these

strategies can be adapted to various environmental conditions. This could involve comparative

studies across different regions, exploring how local climate and cultural factors influence

building design and energy use. By addressing these areas, future research can build on the

findings of this study to develop more refined, effective, and sustainable approaches to building

energy efficiency, ultimately contributing to the global effort to reduce energy consumption and

combat climate change.

33
 6 References

[1] C. Petcu, A. Hegyi, V. Stoian, C.S. Dragomir, A.A. Ciobanu, A.-V. Lăzărescu, C. Florean,

Research on Thermal Insulation Performance and Impact on Indoor Air Quality of Cellulose-

Based Thermal Insulation Materials, Materials (Basel) 16 (15) (2023) 5458.

https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16155458.

[2] J.R. Zhao, R. Zheng, J. Tang, H.J. Sun, J. Wang, A mini-review on building insulation

materials from perspective of plastic pollution: Current issues and natural fibres as a possible

solution, J. Hazard. Mater. 129449 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129449.

[3] J. Adamczyk, R. Dylewski, The impact of thermal insulation investments on sustainability in

the construction sector, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 80 (2017) 421-429.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.173.

[4] A.L. Webb, Energy retrofits in historic and traditional buildings: A review of problems and

methods, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 77 (2017) 748-759.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.145.

[5] R. Ruparathna, K. Hewage, R. Sadiq, Improving the energy efficiency of the existing building

stock: A critical review of commercial and institutional buildings, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.

53 (2016) 1032-1045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.09.084.

[6] A. Aflaki, N. Mahyuddin, Z. Al-Cheikh Mahmoud, M.R. Baharum, A review on natural

ventilation applications through building façade components and ventilation openings in tropical

climates, Energy Build. 101 (2015) 153-162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.04.033.

34
[7] Z. Jiang, T. Kobayashi, T. Yamanaka, M. Sandberg, A literature review of cross ventilation in

buildings, Energy Build. 290 (2023) 113143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.113143.

[8] X. Cao, X. Dai, J. Liu, Building energy-consumption status worldwide and the state-of-the-art

technologies for zero-energy buildings during the past decade, Energy Build. 128 (2016) 198-

213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.06.089.

[9] D. Lee, S.-T. Lee, Artificial intelligence enabled energy-efficient heating, ventilation and air

conditioning system: Design, analysis and necessary hardware upgrades, Appl. Therm. Eng. 230

(2023) 121253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2023.121253.

[10] D. Carbonell, M.Y. Haller, E. Frank, Potential Benefit of Combining Heat Pumps with Solar

Thermal for Heating and Domestic Hot Water Preparation, Energy Procedia 48 (2014) 608-617.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2014.10.277.

[11] K. Sayed, H.A. Gabbar, Building Energy Management Systems (BEMS), in: H. Gabbar

(Ed.), Smart Energy Grid Engineering, 1st ed., Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2017, pp. 27-57.

https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119422099.ch2.

[12] P. Bullen, P. Love, Factors influencing the adaptive re-use of buildings, J. Eng. Des.

Technol. 9 (1) (2011) 32-46. https://doi.org/10.1108/17260531111121459.

[13] D. Darling, David Darling - Science Writer. https://www.daviddarling.info/.

[14] U.S. Department of Energy, Natural Ventilation.

https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/natural-ventilation.

[15] EUR-Lex, EUR-Lex - 32010L0031 - EN - EUR-Lex. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-

content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32010L0031.

35
[16] Shutterstock, 지봉 태양 전지판이 있는 가정용 태양에너지 스토크 벡터 (로열티 프리) 2232554765 | Shutterstock.

https://www.shutterstock.com/ko/image-vector/home-solar-power-system-roof-sun-2232554765

(accessed 24 Feb. 2025).

36