Plan

An Example

Basics of Matrices
An Example for Motivation
Solve the simultaneous linear equations:

x − y − z = 2, 3x − 3y + 2z = 16, 2x − y + z = 9.
An Example for Motivation
Solve the simultaneous linear equations:

x − y − z = 2, 3x − 3y + 2z = 16, 2x − y + z = 9.

Step 1: Represent the given equations in a rectangular array

form as follows.

 
x − y − z = 2 1 −1 −1 2
3x − 3y + 2z = 16  3 −3 2 16 
2x − y + z = 9 2 −1 1 9
Step 2: Subtract 3 times the 1st equation from the 2nd
equation; Subtract 3 times the 1st row from the 2nd row.

 
x − y − z = 2 1 −1 −1 2
5z = 10  0 0 5 10 
2x − y + z = 9 2 −1 1 9
Step 2: Subtract 3 times the 1st equation from the 2nd
equation; Subtract 3 times the 1st row from the 2nd row.

 
x − y − z = 2 1 −1 −1 2
5z = 10  0 0 5 10 
2x − y + z = 9 2 −1 1 9

Step 3: Subtract 2 times the 1st equation from the 3rd

equation; Subtract 2 times the 1st row from the 3rd row.

 
x − y − z = 2 1 −1 −1 2
5z = 10  0 0 5 10 
y + 3z = 5 0 1 3 5
Step 4: Interchange the 2nd and 3rd equation; Interchange
the 2nd and 3rd row.

 
x − y − z = 2 1 −1 −1 2
y + 3z = 5  0 1 3 5 
5z = 10 0 0 5 10
Step 4: Interchange the 2nd and 3rd equation; Interchange
the 2nd and 3rd row.

 
x − y − z = 2 1 −1 −1 2
y + 3z = 5  0 1 3 5 
5z = 10 0 0 5 10

By backward substitution, we find z = 2, y = −1, x = 3 is a

solution of the given system of equations.
Matrices
 Matrices

Definition:
A matrix A = [aij ], of size m × n, is an array of numbers in
m rows and n columns:
 
a11 a12 . . . a1n
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
 
A= . .. .. ..  .
 . . . . . 
am1 am2 . . . amn
 Matrices

Definition:
A matrix A = [aij ], of size m × n, is an array of numbers in
m rows and n columns:
 
a11 a12 . . . a1n
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
 
A= . .. .. ..  .
 . . . . . 
am1 am2 . . . amn

The number aij is called the (i, j)-th entry of A.

 Matrices

Definition:
A matrix A = [aij ], of size m × n, is an array of numbers in
m rows and n columns:
 
a11 a12 . . . a1n
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
 
A= . .. .. ..  .
 . . . . . 
am1 am2 . . . amn

The number aij is called the (i, j)-th entry of A.

A 1 × n matrix is called a row matrix (or row vector) and an

n × 1 matrix is called a column matrix (or column vector).
 Matrices

Definition:
A matrix A = [aij ], of size m × n, is an array of numbers in
m rows and n columns:
 
a11 a12 . . . a1n
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
 
A= . .. .. ..  .
 . . . . . 
am1 am2 . . . amn

The number aij is called the (i, j)-th entry of A.

A 1 × n matrix is called a row matrix (or row vector) and an

n × 1 matrix is called a column matrix (or column vector).

Matrices A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] are said to be equal if they

are of same size and aij = bij for each i and j.
If m = n, then A is called a square matrix.
If m = n, then A is called a square matrix.

If A is a square matrix, then the entries aii are called the

diagonal entries of A.
If m = n, then A is called a square matrix.

If A is a square matrix, then the entries aii are called the

diagonal entries of A.

If A is a square matrix and if aij = 0 for all i 6= j, then A is

called a diagonal matrix.
If m = n, then A is called a square matrix.

If A is a square matrix, then the entries aii are called the

diagonal entries of A.

If A is a square matrix and if aij = 0 for all i 6= j, then A is

called a diagonal matrix.

If an n × n diagonal matrix has all diagonal entries equal to

1, then it is called the identity matrix of size n, and is
denoted by In (or simply by I).
If m = n, then A is called a square matrix.

If A is a square matrix, then the entries aii are called the

diagonal entries of A.

If A is a square matrix and if aij = 0 for all i 6= j, then A is

called a diagonal matrix.

If an n × n diagonal matrix has all diagonal entries equal to

1, then it is called the identity matrix of size n, and is
denoted by In (or simply by I).

If all the entries of A are equal to 0 then A is called a zero

matrix, denoted Om×n (or simply by O)
A matrix B is said to be a sub matrix of A if B is obtained
by deleting some rows and/or columns of A.
A matrix B is said to be a sub matrix of A if B is obtained
by deleting some rows and/or columns of A.

Transpose At of A = [aij ] is defined as At = [aji ], for all i, j.

A matrix B is said to be a sub matrix of A if B is obtained
by deleting some rows and/or columns of A.

Transpose At of A = [aij ] is defined as At = [aji ], for all i, j.

The matrix A is said to be symmetric if At = A.

A matrix B is said to be a sub matrix of A if B is obtained
by deleting some rows and/or columns of A.

Transpose At of A = [aij ] is defined as At = [aji ], for all i, j.

The matrix A is said to be symmetric if At = A.

The matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if At = −A.

A matrix B is said to be a sub matrix of A if B is obtained
by deleting some rows and/or columns of A.

Transpose At of A = [aij ] is defined as At = [aji ], for all i, j.

The matrix A is said to be symmetric if At = A.

The matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if At = −A.

t
If A is a complex matrix, then A = [aij ] and A∗ = A .
A matrix B is said to be a sub matrix of A if B is obtained
by deleting some rows and/or columns of A.

Transpose At of A = [aij ] is defined as At = [aji ], for all i, j.

The matrix A is said to be symmetric if At = A.

The matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if At = −A.

t
If A is a complex matrix, then A = [aij ] and A∗ = A .

The matrix A∗ is called the conjugate transpose of A.

A matrix B is said to be a sub matrix of A if B is obtained
by deleting some rows and/or columns of A.

Transpose At of A = [aij ] is defined as At = [aji ], for all i, j.

The matrix A is said to be symmetric if At = A.

The matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if At = −A.

t
If A is a complex matrix, then A = [aij ] and A∗ = A .

The matrix A∗ is called the conjugate transpose of A.

The (complex) matrix A is said to be Hermitian if A∗ = A,

and skew-Hermitian if A∗ = −A.
A square matrix A is said to be upper triangular if aij = 0
for all i > j.
A square matrix A is said to be upper triangular if aij = 0
for all i > j.

A square matrix A is said to be lower triangular if aij = 0 for

all i < j.
A square matrix A is said to be upper triangular if aij = 0
for all i > j.

A square matrix A is said to be lower triangular if aij = 0 for

all i < j.

Let A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] be two m × n matrices and c ∈ C.

Then A + B = [aij + bij ], A − B = [aij − bij ] and cA = [caij ].
A square matrix A is said to be upper triangular if aij = 0
for all i > j.

A square matrix A is said to be lower triangular if aij = 0 for

all i < j.

Let A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] be two m × n matrices and c ∈ C.

Then A + B = [aij + bij ], A − B = [aij − bij ] and cA = [caij ].

Let A = [aij ] and B = [bjk ] be two m × n and n × r matrices,

respectively. Then AB = [cik ] is the m × r matrix, where

cik = ai1 b1k + ai2 b2k + . . . + ain bnk .

Let A be an n × n square matrix. Then we define
A0 = In , A1 = A and A2 = AA.
Let A be an n × n square matrix. Then we define
A0 = In , A1 = A and A2 = AA.

In general, if k is a positive integer, we define the power Ak

as follows
Ak = AA . . . A} .
| {z
k times
 Let A be an n × n square matrix. Then we define
A0 = In , A1 = A and A2 = AA.

In general, if k is a positive integer, we define the power Ak

as follows
Ak = AA . . . A} .
| {z
k times

If A and O are matrices of the same size, then

A + O = A = O + A, A − O = A, O − A = −A, A − A = O.
 Let A be an n × n square matrix. Then we define
A0 = In , A1 = A and A2 = AA.

In general, if k is a positive integer, we define the power Ak

as follows
Ak = AA . . . A} .
| {z
k times

If A and O are matrices of the same size, then

A + O = A = O + A, A − O = A, O − A = −A, A − A = O.

Unless otherwise mentioned, all matrices are taken to have

complex numbers as entries.
Method of Induction: [Version I] Let P(n) be a
mathematical statement based on all positive integers n.
Suppose that P(1) is true. If k ≥ 1 and if the assumption that
P(k) is true gives that P(k + 1) is also true, then the statement
P(n) is true for all positive integers.
Method of Induction: [Version I] Let P(n) be a
mathematical statement based on all positive integers n.
Suppose that P(1) is true. If k ≥ 1 and if the assumption that
P(k) is true gives that P(k + 1) is also true, then the statement
P(n) is true for all positive integers.

Method of Induction: [Version II] Let i be an integer and

let P(n) be a mathematical statement based on all integers n of
the set {i, i + 1, i + 2, . . .}. Suppose that P(i) is true. If k ≥ i
and if the assumption that P(k) is true gives that P(k + 1) is
also true, then the statement P(n) is true for all integers of the
set {i, i + 1, i + 2, . . .}.
Result
Let A be an m × n matrix, ei an 1 × m standard unit row vector,
and ej an n × 1 standard unit column vector. Then ei A is the
i-th row of A and Aej is the j-th column of A.
Result
Let A be an m × n matrix, ei an 1 × m standard unit row vector,
and ej an n × 1 standard unit column vector. Then ei A is the
i-th row of A and Aej is the j-th column of A.

Result
Let A be a square matrix and let r and s be non-negative
integers. Then Ar As = Ar +s and (Ar )s = Ars .
Result
Let A be an m × n matrix, ei an 1 × m standard unit row vector,
and ej an n × 1 standard unit column vector. Then ei A is the
i-th row of A and Aej is the j-th column of A.

Result
Let A be a square matrix and let r and s be non-negative
integers. Then Ar As = Ar +s and (Ar )s = Ars .

Result
Let A, B and C be matrices of size m × n, and let s, r ∈ C. Then
Result
Let A be an m × n matrix, ei an 1 × m standard unit row vector,
and ej an n × 1 standard unit column vector. Then ei A is the
i-th row of A and Aej is the j-th column of A.

Result
Let A be a square matrix and let r and s be non-negative
integers. Then Ar As = Ar +s and (Ar )s = Ars .

Result
Let A, B and C be matrices of size m × n, and let s, r ∈ C. Then
1 Commutative Law: A + B = B + A.
Result
Let A be an m × n matrix, ei an 1 × m standard unit row vector,
and ej an n × 1 standard unit column vector. Then ei A is the
i-th row of A and Aej is the j-th column of A.

Result
Let A be a square matrix and let r and s be non-negative
integers. Then Ar As = Ar +s and (Ar )s = Ars .

Result
Let A, B and C be matrices of size m × n, and let s, r ∈ C. Then
1 Commutative Law: A + B = B + A.
2 Associative Law: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
Result
Let A be an m × n matrix, ei an 1 × m standard unit row vector,
and ej an n × 1 standard unit column vector. Then ei A is the
i-th row of A and Aej is the j-th column of A.

Result
Let A be a square matrix and let r and s be non-negative
integers. Then Ar As = Ar +s and (Ar )s = Ars .

Result
Let A, B and C be matrices of size m × n, and let s, r ∈ C. Then
1 Commutative Law: A + B = B + A.
2 Associative Law: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
3 1A = A and s(rA) = (sr )A.
Result
Let A be an m × n matrix, ei an 1 × m standard unit row vector,
and ej an n × 1 standard unit column vector. Then ei A is the
i-th row of A and Aej is the j-th column of A.

Result
Let A be a square matrix and let r and s be non-negative
integers. Then Ar As = Ar +s and (Ar )s = Ars .

Result
Let A, B and C be matrices of size m × n, and let s, r ∈ C. Then
1 Commutative Law: A + B = B + A.
2 Associative Law: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
3 1A = A and s(rA) = (sr )A.
4 s(A + B) = sA + sB and (s + r )A = sA + rA.
Result
Let A, B and C be matrices, and let s ∈ C. Then
Result
Let A, B and C be matrices, and let s ∈ C. Then
1 Associative Law: (AB)C = A(BC), if the respective matrix
products are defined.
Result
Let A, B and C be matrices, and let s ∈ C. Then
1 Associative Law: (AB)C = A(BC), if the respective matrix
products are defined.

2 Distributive Law:
A(B + C) = AB + AC, (A + B)C = AC + BC,
if the respective matrix sum and matrix products are
defined.
Result
Let A, B and C be matrices, and let s ∈ C. Then
1 Associative Law: (AB)C = A(BC), if the respective matrix
products are defined.

2 Distributive Law:
A(B + C) = AB + AC, (A + B)C = AC + BC,
if the respective matrix sum and matrix products are
defined.

3 s(AB) = (sA)B = A(sB), if the respective matrix products

are defined.
Result
Let A, B and C be matrices, and let s ∈ C. Then
1 Associative Law: (AB)C = A(BC), if the respective matrix
products are defined.

2 Distributive Law:
A(B + C) = AB + AC, (A + B)C = AC + BC,
if the respective matrix sum and matrix products are
defined.

3 s(AB) = (sA)B = A(sB), if the respective matrix products

are defined.

4 Im A = A = AIn , if A is of size m × n.
Result
Let A and B be two matrices and k ∈ C. Then
Result
Let A and B be two matrices and k ∈ C. Then

1 (At )t = A, (kA)t = kAt .

Result
Let A and B be two matrices and k ∈ C. Then

1 (At )t = A, (kA)t = kAt .

2 (A + B)t = At + B t if A and B are of the same size.

Result
Let A and B be two matrices and k ∈ C. Then

1 (At )t = A, (kA)t = kAt .

2 (A + B)t = At + B t if A and B are of the same size.

3 (AB)t = B t At if the matrix product AB is defined.

Result
Let A and B be two matrices and k ∈ C. Then

1 (At )t = A, (kA)t = kAt .

2 (A + B)t = At + B t if A and B are of the same size.

3 (AB)t = B t At if the matrix product AB is defined.

4 (Ar )t = (At )r for any non-negative integer r .

Partitioned Matrix
By introducing vertical and horizontal lines into a given
matrix, we can partition it into some blocks of smaller
sub-matrices.
Partitioned Matrix
By introducing vertical and horizontal lines into a given
matrix, we can partition it into some blocks of smaller
sub-matrices.

For example, three partitions of the matrix A are given

below:
   
1 0 0 2 1 0 0 2
 0 1 1 1   0 1 1 1 
A= 0 0 2 1 , A =  0 0 2 1 ,
  

0 0 1 5 0 0 1 5
   
1 0 0 2 1 0 0 2
 0 1 1 1   0 1 1 1 
A= , A=
 0
.
 0 0 2 1  0 2 1 
0 0 1 5 0 0 1 5
A given matrix can have several partitions possible.
A given matrix can have several partitions possible.

A block matrix A = [Aij ] is a matrix, where each entry Aij is

itself a matrix.
A given matrix can have several partitions possible.

A block matrix A = [Aij ] is a matrix, where each entry Aij is

itself a matrix.

Thus a partition of a given matrix give us a block matrix.

A given matrix can have several partitions possible.

A block matrix A = [Aij ] is a matrix, where each entry Aij is

itself a matrix.

Thus a partition of a given matrix give us a block matrix.

The first partition of 

the previous matrix
 A is the block
  1 0 0 2
I B  0 1 1 1 
matrix =  0 0 2 1 , where

O C
0 0 1 5
A given matrix can have several partitions possible.

A block matrix A = [Aij ] is a matrix, where each entry Aij is

itself a matrix.

Thus a partition of a given matrix give us a block matrix.

The first partition of 

the previous matrix
 A is the block
  1 0 0 2
I B  0 1 1 1 
matrix =  0 0 2 1 , where

O C
0 0 1 5
       
1 0 0 0 0 2 2 1
I= ,O= ,B = ,C = .
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 5
Result
Let A and B be two matrices of sizes m × n and n × r , resp.
Result
Let A and B be two matrices of sizes m × n and n × r , resp.

1 If B = [b1 | b2 | . . . | br ] then AB = [Ab1 | Ab2 | . . . | Abr ].

Result
Let A and B be two matrices of sizes m × n and n × r , resp.

1 If B = [b1 | b2 | . . . | br ] then AB = [Ab1 | Ab2 | . . . | Abr ].

   
a1 a1 B

 a2 


 a2 B 

2 If A =  ..  then AB =  .. .
 .   . 
am am B
Result
Let A and B be two matrices of sizes m × n and n × r , resp.

1 If B = [b1 | b2 | . . . | br ] then AB = [Ab1 | Ab2 | . . . | Abr ].

   
a1 a1 B

 a2 


 a2 B 

2 If A =  ..  then AB =  .. .
 .   . 
am am B
 
bt1
 bt2 
If m = n = r and if A = [at1 | at2 | . . . | atn ] and B = 
3
 
.. 
 . 
btn
then
AB = at1 bt1 + at2 bt2 + . . . + atn btn .