The History of Computer

Introduction: The Dawn of Computing

The evolution of the computer has been an ongoing struggle with technology.
The first computer created was in the third century. The Abacus was
developed for counting and since this time man has been pushing the limits to
create machines that can perform tasks faster and more efficient than human
possibility.

The Mechanical Beginnings: From Abacus to Analytical Engine

The pre-computer age was a time in which mathematic engineers battled with
the creating somewhat of a more efficient abacus. John Napier created the
logarithm table to simplify calculations needed for astronomy. The Napier
bones were a set of bones that when place in order could show the product of
computations. After this the more popular Pascaline invented by
Blaise Pascal was an automatic desk-top machine that could add and subtract.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz invented a calculating machine that could not only
add and subtract, but could also divide and multiply. While these men were
working on mechanical calculators, other inventors discovered theories and
relationships between logic and mathematics.

The Birth of Binary Logic and Its Impact on Computing

George Boole s invention marked a milestone in the nineteenth century. He
discovered the significance of the algebraic binary zero-logic system. He
simplified logic into a two-value system, binary notation, which is used today.
He wrote and studied about the relationship between logic and mathematics,
which later lead to the development of the electronic computer. His
discoveries allowed Charles Babbage to produce machines that could perform
logical operations.

The Era of Innovations: Babbage to the First Relay Computer

In 1822 Babbage created the first automatic calculating machine, the
Difference Engine. Later in 1833 he designed the Analytical Engine the first
universal automatic calculator. His designs had the same elements as the
modern computer memory, control, arithmetic units, input and output. He is
known as the grandfather of the modern computer. Seven years after the
Analytical Engine was introduced the first relay computer was designed by
George Stibitz. He introduced the idea of a remote data processor. Unlike its
predecessors it could perform complex calculations. The Complex Number
Calculator was developed for Bell Laboratories and was the first calculator
that could operate from a remote teletype terminal.

The Advent of Electronic Computing: World War II and Beyond

The first generation of computers was from 1945-1956. The pressures of
fighting in World War II encouraged the government to advance the
technology in the United States to compete with Germany s technology.
During this time computation speeds ranged from 500 to 1000 calculations
per second, a phenomenal increase for the pre-computer stage. During the
1950s vacuum-tube computer were built and marketed and magnetic drums
were used for data storage. This meant that computers were tremendously
large and often over heated because of their size and the amount of energy
that they consumed. Computer had individual languages and were difficult to
program. In 1941 German s, Konrad Zuse, developed a computer that could
create designs for airplanes and missiles. In 1943 the British gained an edge
on Germany s technology by designing the colossus which could crack
Germany s computer codes. The Colossus was designed by Alan Turing.
Howard Aiken led the way in American computer technology for World War
Two. Aiken worked with IBM to create the Automatic Sequencing Controlled
Calculator known as the Mark I. It was used to design gunnery and ballistic
plans for the United States Navy. Aiken continued to work with IBM and
developed the Mark II and the all-electronic Mark III, and the Mark IV for the
U.S Air Force. In 1944 The Ballistic Research Laboratory of the United States
asked for someone to recompute the strategies for the use of missies and guns
in the war. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly submitted proposals and created
the Electronic Numerical Integration Computer. Mauchly and Eckert went on
to work for the Sperry Rand Corporation and the Unisys Corporation as well.
In 1969 Ecket was given the National Science Foundation National Medal of
Science for his contributes to computing. By 1959 Mauchly had formed
Mauchly and Associates. It was here that he developed the critical path
method (CPM), which was used for scheduling. Mauchly s last
accomplishment was the creation of the dynatred and systems which
predicted the weather and stock market trends. The Hungarian scientist
Neumann published three papers on quantum theory as well as one on game
theory and one on formal logic and the mathematic system. In 1946 he re-
introduced the idea of stored programs; this was revolutionary because at this
time programs were on push cards or wired control panels. In 1947 he created
the mathematical analyzer and numerical integrator and computer which
allowed the United States to create the world’s first hydrogen bomb in 1954.
After his contribution to the war, he returned to his study of mathematics and
quantum mechanics and went on to prove that Schrodiger’s wave mechanics
were equal to Heisenberg s matrix mechanics. Norbert Wiener developed the
concept of cybernetics. Cybernetics is the theoretical study of controlled
processes in electronic and mathematical analysis of the flow of information in
mechanical and biological systems. He designed a central processing unit
which allowed all computers to function from same source. Wiener refused to
construct any other machine or contribute any other studies to the military.
The first generation of computers can be characterized not only because they
were built to aid in the World War II, but because each was built for a specific
task. Until modern computers they were not versatile and could only perform
few operations. Each computer had a different language that instructed it how
to operate. They all used vacuum tubes which made them gigantic in size this
not only meant that they were expensive but that they could not be used for
business or personal use.

The Transition to Transistors: The Second Generation of

Computers
The second generation of computers was from 1956-1963. In 1947 transistors
were invented in the Bell Laboratories. Transistors along with magnetic core
memory transistors made the second generation of computers smaller, faster,
more energy efficient, and more reliable. By the late 1940s transistors started
to replace vacuum tubes in televisions, and radios. By 1956 transistors were in
computers. The transistor computers could move at speeds ranging from
2,000 computations per second in the small machines, to 500,000 per second
in the large machines. The early supercomputers were Stretch by IBM and
LARC by Sperry Rand. These computers were too powerful and expensive for
use among small business and households. Both the Stretch and LARC could
store massive amounts of data and were popular amongst atomic scientists.
Thomas Watson combined three computer companies in 1911 and these would
soon be known as IBM after 1925. Watson and his developers created
machines that would perform better than the Mark I. In 1947 they created the
Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator this was the most powerful and
versatile computer availed. After the Korean war the IBM designed the 701 it
was one forth the size of the pervious computer and could process information
twenty-five times faster. They also introduced the 700 the first family
computer available. In 1954 they released the 650 and later that year the 704
as well as two more in 1955 and in 1956. IBM was on its way to becoming the
largest computer producer in the world.

Integrated Circuits and Minicomputers: The Third Generation

The third generation do for computers was from 1964-1971, it marked the
invention of the integrated circuit (IC), and the development of operating
systems. Jack Kilby, an engineer of Texas Instruments developed the IC in
1957 and by 1964 it was in use. The development of the IC was significant
because it pooled the role of the transistors and other circuits into a chip.
These new IC chips were one sixteenth of a square inch and a few hundredths
of an inch thick. Furthermore, these chips were produced through a
photographic process and were inexpensive. Computers that used ICs were
less expensive and could perform up to ten million additions per second and
had greater memory. In 1965 the first minicomputer was introduced by the
Digital Equipment corporation. Small business brought the minicomputer not
only because of its lower price but because of its smaller size. In the early
1970s large-scale integration (LSI) circuit chips were made. This helped
decrease the size of computers, as well and signified a change in the
generation. In the 1980s the largest scale integration chip was made (VLSI). It
could hold five times as many transistors as the LSI. In 1969 the
microprocessor was developed. It was a general-purpose computer that could
be programmed to do numerous jobs. The microprocessor created a compact,
complete and inexpensive computer that was hounded by businesses. The
operating system had been developed which allowed computers to perform
many tasks at a time. The battle of vacuum tubes was over ICs were in place
and chips revolutionized the size of computers and moved them into the
fourth generation.

The Microprocessor Revolution: The Fourth Generation and

Personal Computing
The fourth generation of computers started in 1971 and goes until the present
day. During this time the popularity and technology of computers has become
epic. The Altair 8800 in 1975 was the first real microcomputer. In 1975
Stephen Wozniak and Jobs started to build their own microprocessor. They
developed the BASIC language for programming and playing games and
marketed it as the Apple I. After this they merged all the components into one
circuit board revised the Apple I into the Apple II and created the Apple
Computer Corporation. The Apple II was sleeker than the Apple I, and
weighted only twelve pounds and had a plastic case. In 1984 they created the
Macintosh, the easiest computer of all time to use and soon had nine hundred
and eighty-three million dollars and four thousand, seven hundred employees.
In 1985 Jobs has a disagreement and left to create his own company NeXT. He
planned to create scholars’ workstations for universities. In 1988, after NeXT
computer systems developed Jobs idea unfortunately the company was not
successful. In 1972 Seymour Cray founded Cray Research Incorporated. Their
first computer was the Cray-1. It was the first effective use of vector processing,
which allowed different parts of the computer to be used at once. Three year
later they designed the Cray-2 which had six to twelve times the speed as the
previous model and the largest internal memory available. That same year
Cray began working on plans for the Cray- 3 which would have billion bytes of
memory and process information five to ten times as fast than then the Cray-2.
He won the Engineering Leadership Recognition award for his ground
breaking technological developments. The next challenge for computer
developers was the reduce the size. By the 1980 s VLSI had not only
diminished some of the size and price but had made computers more powerful
and efficient. In 1971 Intel created the 4004, the first microprocessor. Intel s
technology took the IC a step further by taking all of the programming
elements and putting them into a central processing unit. This was significant
because previously ICs had been designed for a specific task and Intel s 4004
could do a number of tasks. The power of the microprocessor overflowed into
all areas of science and engineering. Microwaves ovens, televisions, radios and
automobiles used microprocessors. The microprocessor’s efficiency and price
made it ideal for families and businesses. In the mid to late 1970s
manufactures began designing computers for the use of small business and
everyday people. Small business and families demanded computers with word
processors, spread sheets, and video games. Commodore, Radio Shack and
Apple jumped into the market, and provide inexpensive computers that came
with the software demanded. Arcade games like Pac Man and home gaming
systems were developed. Atari 2600 encouraged consumers to explore the
powers of computer technology. Throughout the 1980s many companies tried
to take advantage of the popularity of computers but only a few survived the
fierce competition. The copy right laws hurt some companies while allowing
other to clone their models and ideas This was a time when there were many
manufactures, each competing to have the fastest computer, and using
everything that IBM had created. By 1979 there were over a million computers
in the United States. While Motorola marketed a versatile 16-bit chip, that
could work with an add-on; Intel found a cheaper way to increase
performance by using a 16-bit internally and 8-bits in the data bus. Texas
Instruments developed a Personal Computer that used ROM cartridges for
programs and games. Epson generated better dot matrix printer, the mx-80
which became an industry standard. Hayes marketed its first modem, and set
the pace and compatibility for modem development. In 1980 Xerox
introduced the graphical Star Workstation. This was the first graphical user
interface. They gave a demo of their work to the Apple corporation, and they
soon adapted it into Apple s design. Hewlett-Packard was leading in the
development of PCs. They made the first 32-bit microprocessor that would
could operate in cycles of 55 billion per second. Although Hewlett Packard
had the most colors, Commodore developed a computer that became the best-
selling computer of all time in 1982. It was the VIC-20 with 5KB of RAM
expandable to 32KBS. Hayes created the Smartmodem which could transfer
data at 1,200bps. In 1982 Microsoft released FORTRAN for the PC, and
COBOL for MS- DOS. Peter Norton created Norton Unities, software for
recovering files. WordPerfect 1.0 and Lotus 1-2-3 were introduced. Compaq
produced a portable computer that was virtually a clone of the IBM PC. Epson
manufactured the HX- 20 which was the first notebook size portable
computer. Compaq continued to clone IBM s computers and became IBM s
biggest competitor. While Compaq and IBM competed for the sales of
sophisticated PC market, Commodore took control over the market by offering
cheaper prices. Commodore developed the Commodore 64, with a price of two
hundred dollars, it became the best-selling computer of all time. Despite the
sales of PCs Apple was number one with annual sales of over one billion
dollars. By 1983 the impact of the computer and the path that they would take
was becoming clearer. Time magazine named the personal computer ‘Man of
the Year’. Microsoft released Microsoft Word 1.0, which crushed the
competition became the best-selling work processor. IBM introduced the PC-
Draw their first IBM PC based graphics program. Tandy, NEC and Epson were
competing in notebook sales. Tandy created a model which sold of under five
hundred dollars and was the easiest to use. By the end of 1983 there were over
ten million computers in the Unites States. In 1984 the influence of computers
was becoming clear. Dell computer company was founded, a computer
museum was opened in Boston, and Bill Gates was featured on the cover of
Time Magazine. The 3.5-inch floppy disk was introduced and Haynes created
modems that could send data at 2,400 bps. Apple introduced its Macintosh
with a graphic user interface allowing user to use a mouse to make command
rather than typing them in like on a PC. Meanwhile, IBM compatible
computers were becoming more wide-spread. In 1985 Microsoft and IBM
begin to discuss the development for a new operating system. Gateway 2000
is founded and now competes with Dell for mail order computers sales. Intel
develops the 80386 which can access four gigabytes of memory. Microsoft
continues to influence the PCs with the development of windows 1.0 and the
introduction of over twenty new languages and operating systems. A Vision,
becomes the first graphics program that is independent and based on
Windows; a trend which is exists today. Aldus Corp. create PageMaker for
Macintosh which begins the age of desktop publishing. In 1986 Apple markets
the Mac Plus, while Compaq beats IBM and introduces the first 386-based PC
compactable machine. IMB creates the first laptop with a PC converter and
Toshiba quickly duplicates it and wins kills IMB it its laptop sales. Microsoft
goes on the New York Stock Exchange and at twenty-one dollars per share and
Bill Gates becomes the youngest billionaire ever. In 1987 Hayes creates the
Integrated Service Digital Network which can transfer information four times
faster than telephone lines. Microsoft purchases Forethought Inc., which has
developed power point, and they make it available for Macintosh and the PC.
Microsoft sells Windows 2.0 and Microsoft Works and stock shares hit one
hundred dollars. Microsoft and IMB introduce OS/21.0 in hopes that it will
replace MS-DOS. IBM introduces the PS/2 PC which has a floppy drive and a
(MCA) Micro-Channel Architecture in hopes to separate it from other PCs.
They do not allow others to copy the MCA. This turned out to be IBM s biggest
mistake. The Computer Security Act was put into effect to In 1988 there are
45 million PCs in the United States. Apple files a suite against Hewlett-
Packard for using their graphical interface kit. Microsoft creates Microsoft
Publisher and PC Works. In 1989 there are more than one hundred million
computers in the world. Tim Berners-Lee develops the language and protocol
that leads to the creation of the World Wide Web. Creative Labs introduces
SoundBlaster live for PCs, with digitized voice input and output. The GriD
systems creates the first pen-based computer. Intel releases the 486DX
Processor and Hayes introduced an improvement in ISDN technology. Poqet
introduces the Poqet PC, the only MS-DOS compatible pocket size computer.
Motorola markets its 68040 processor with memory management and a FPU
built inside. In 1990 Microsoft comes on the internet with its release of
Russian DOS 4.01 The World which is the first commercial internet provider.
Microsoft and IBM stop developing an operating system together. IBM
chooses not go along with Microsoft s vision; IBM s second major mistake.
Creative Labs makes the best-selling add-on board for the PC, the 8-bit stereo
sound system with CD-ROM interface and 20-voice FM synthesis. In 1991 the
World Wide Web is launched. Gopher is created at the University of
Minnesota. This helps people search for information online. Intel tried to
bring down the costs of its chips with the 486SX, which has 1.18 million
transistors and no math coprocessor. IBM and Microsoft are no longer
working together so they change the name of OS/2 to Windows NT. Sony,
Philips and Microsoft create CD-ROM for text to video CD-ROM software. In
1992 Bill Gates is worth over four billion dollars and is the second richest
person the United States. Microsoft sell over one million copies of Windows
3.1 within its first month. Microsoft and IBM agree to end all connection to
each other and sign a document that allows them to share a source code in the
current operating system. Intel releases the 486DX2 with a central processing
unit that operates with 1.2 million transistors, and with the first x86 chip with
an external bus, working at half the core speed. There are over one million
computers that are on the Internet. In 1993 there are fifty World Wide Web
servers, and Bill Clinton put the white House online. Microsoft releases
Windows NT 3.1, Microsoft Office 4.0 MS-DOS which includes DoubleSpace
Compression utilities, Stac Electronics sues Microsoft for right over
DoubleSpace utilities. Intel releases the Pentium Processor, which moves at
60MHz. Gateway 2000 breaks a million computers in sales. Steven Jobs hires
John Scully as president of Apple, which will hurt Apple later. Scully
encourages the creation of a palmtop computer call the Newton. The
Environmental Protection Agency establishes the Energy Star guidelines to
decrease the amount of energy that computers use. In 1994 as the internet
celebrates its twenty fifth anniversary, Marc Anderson and James H. Clark
develop Netscape Communications and introduce Netscape Navigator.
Commodore Computer which sold the most popular computer of all time the
Commodore 64, filed for bankruptcy. Microsoft, Hewlett-Packard, U.S West,
Telstra, Deutsche Telekom, NTT, Olivetti, Anderson and Alcatel work together
to develop software for interactive television. Microsoft develops software for
Visa so that customers can do international electronic shopping.
Microsoft releases its operating system Windows 95. Microsoft soon signs a
consent agreement with the United States Department of Justice and the
European Union because of suspicion of antitrust violations. Microsoft can no
longer collect money from distributors who used MS-Dos and Windows as
their operating system. In 1995 Apple allows other companies to copy the
Macintosh computer but the PC has already conquered the market. Microsoft
joined forces with DreamWorks SKG and formed DreamWorks Interactive to
create multimedia software for households. Microsoft joins forces with the
NBC to create interactive television. Netscape shares open to the public at
twenty-eight dollars per share and close at fifty-eight dollars per share,
creating the first largest increase in the history in the New York Stock
Exchange. Intuit the maker of Quicken, joins with American Express, Chase
Manhattan Bank and Wells Fargo to allow customers to enter their accounts
through dial up modems. Microsoft announces its intentions to buy Intuit, but
the U.S Department of Justice threatens to sue Microsoft and Microsoft
withdraws the statement. Microsoft releases Windows 95, Microsoft Office 95;
and both are huge successes. Intel destroys 1.5 million chips because of flaws.
They release the Pentium Pro (P6) with 5.5 million transistors. In 1996 IBM
and Sears sell Prodigy online to investors as Internet Wireless. AT&T creates
WorldNet and gives its customs free hours. Java allows applets to be run on
web sites. Telephony lets Internet customers call long distance without paying
long distance fees. Sony

Conclusion: The Future of Computing and Its Infinite Possibilities

The fifth generation of computers starts at the present and goes into the future.
Each day there are more advancements in computer technology. The Hal9000
from the novel ‘2001: A Space Odyssey’ is the ideal fifth generation computer.
It is human like and has visual input and can learn from mistakes and
communicates like a human. The idea of life like computers or robots, still
exists. Innovations like the superconductor which allows electricity to flows
without opposition increases the speed of the exchange of data. I predict that
the future of computers will not only offer more educational opportunities
through the internet but medical and scientific advancements. History shows
that the computers have become for important over time. They are more
sophisticated, and capable of doing more human tasks each day. Today we rely
on computer for many important things, and they are significant part of our
society. I think eventually that gap between human beings and machines will
decline and computers will evolve into subhuman machines capable of almost
all human actions. Computers will surely be a part of the future and their
power has infinite possibilities.