Magnetic Field (Helmholtz Coils)

Aim
1. To study the variation of magnetic field with position of paired coils in Helmholtz arrangement
along the axis of the coils carrying current.
2. To study the principle of super imposition of magnetic field.
3. To calculate the radius of the coil.
Apparatus required:
IC regulated constant current source, digital gauss meter, two coils, movable magnetic field sensor.
Formula Used :
Radius of coil
2𝜋𝑛𝐼∗10−3
a= 𝐵
m

where, n= number of turns (500) OR as mentioned in the set up

I= Current flowing through coil (500 mA)
B= Magnetic field produced (in Gauss). (Max. mag. Field due to a single coil).
putting the values of n, I, & B radius of coil ‘a’ can be found.

Theory:
According to Bio Savart’s law a current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it.
Magnetic field at a point (P) fig.(1) from the current element is given by:

𝜇0 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟
𝐼𝑑𝑙
⃗ =
𝐵 . .… … … (1) Fig. 1
4𝜋 𝑟3

This law when applied to the case of a circular current carrying coil gives the intensity of magnetic
field (B) at a point ‘P’ lying on the axis of coil as follows:
𝜇 2𝜋𝑛𝐼𝑎2
B= 4𝜋0 . (𝑎2 +𝑟2 ).3/2 ………………..(2)

Where,
n= number of turns in the coil, a= radius of coil
I= current flowing in the coil , 𝜇0 = permeability of free space= 4 𝜋*10-7 NA-2
 𝑟 = distance of point P from centre of coil
The units of ‘B’ are Tesla or Wb/m2
The direction of the magnetic intensity at P is along OP (O being center of the coil) produced if the
current flows through the coil in the anti-clock-wise direction as seen from P. If the direction of the
current is clockwise the field at P is along PO.
The value of the magnetic intensity is maximum at the centre O of the coil and is given by
𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
B= 2𝑎
Tesla

as 1 Tesla= 104 Gauss

4𝜋∗ 10−7 𝑛𝐼∗104 4𝜋∗10−3 𝑛𝐼
B= 2𝑎
= 2𝑎
Gauss …………………(3)

If we move away from O towards the right or left, the intensity of the magnetic field decreases. A
graph showing the relation between the intensity of the magnetic field B and the distance ‘r’ is given in
Fig. 2. The curve is first concave towards O but the curvature becomes less and less, quickly changes
sign at P and Q and afterwards becomes convex towards O.
It can be shown that the points of inflexion P or Q (where the curvature changes its sign) lie at
𝑎
distances ( ) from the centre. Hence the distance between P and Q is equal to the radius of the coil.
2

If two such identical coils are placed coaxially, then depending on the relative sense of current flow
in them, the two fields add or subtract (vector sum of two fields) to give the resultant magnetic field at
any point on the axis (principle of superposition).
Helmholtz coils is an arrangement of a pair of identical coils (same no. of turns, radius) placed
coaxially and separated by a distance equal to the radius of either coil. Such a pair produces an almost
uniform magnetic field between the coils if the current through them is same and in the same sense such
that two fields add. The resultant magnetic field at an axial point ‘S’ at a distance (𝑥) from coil 1 is given
by
 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼𝑎 2 1 1
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 2
[ 3 + 3 ] …………………………….(4)
(𝑎2 +𝑥 2 ).2 {𝑎 2 +(𝑥−𝑎)2 )}2

Fig (3) shows the resultant field for Helmholtz coils when current through them is same and flowing
in the same sense such that two fields add and create uniform magnetic field over a range.

Figure 3
Procedure
(i) Connect the Sensor Cable (3-pin) to the sensor socket and Coil Cable (4-pin) to the coils socket.

(ii) Switch 'ON' the main's power.

(iii) Turn the current adjusting knob anti-clockwise to the minimum position; so that the
current is reduced to zero.

(iv) Fix the position of COIL 2 at a distance of 112 mm from the COIL 1 i.e. equal to the radius of the
coils.

(v) Keep the sensor at about 60mm away from first coil and adjust the zero of Gaussmeter
with 'ZERO ADJ.' knob keeping current 0.0mA.

(vi) Put the ‘COIL’ knob to Position 1 so that the COIL 1 is connected to the current source. Adjust the
current to say 500 mA.

(vii) Note down the magnetic field at about 60 mm along the axis of the Coil 1. Now put the coil knob
to Position 2, so that COIL 2 is connected to current source and note down the magnetic field.

(viii) Put the coil knob to Position 3, i.e. 'BOTH', COIL 1 & COIL 2 will be connected to the source.
Now again note down the readings.
(ix) Keep the current same and note down the magnetic field for about 270 mm range at an interval of 5
mm for all the positions i.e. COIL 1 , COIL 2 & 'BOTH'.

Draw the graphs between distance and magnetic field due to COIL 1, COIL 2 and BOTH along the
axis of coils as shown in Fig. 3.

Observations :
No of Turns = 500 OR as mentioned in the set up
Position of 1st coil ……..
Position of 2nd coil ………
S.No. Sensor position Magnetic Field (Gauss)
(mm)
COIL 1 (B1) COIL 2 (B2) BOTH COILS Mag. Field
(B) B’=(B1+B2)
1
2
..
..
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
..
..
27
28

Calculations & Results

1. The profile of magnetic field with distance along the axis of a circular coils carrying current is as
shown fig 3.

2. Principal of super-imposition of magnetic field

(i) It can be seen from the profile of magnetic field that when the current is flowing through
both the coil, magnetic field at any point is the sum of the magnetic field due to coils 1
and coil 2 (i.e.) when the current was flowing individually.

(ii) Another important conclusion is that the magnetic field is very uniform over a large
space when the distance between the two current carrying coils is equal to the radius of
the coils. This property is widely used in scientific and industrial applications.
 3. Calculation of radius of coil

4𝜋 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 𝑛𝐼
𝐵=
2𝑎

Therefore,
2𝜋𝑛𝐼∗10−3
a= m
𝐵
putting the values of n, I, & B radius of coil ‘a’ can be found.

Precautions

(1) Care should be taken that is no stray magnetic field or ferromagnetic material, such as keys,
screwdriver etc. near the set up , while performing the experiment .

(2) The radius of the coil is calculated from the centre of winding.

(3) The Zero of the Gauss meter should be adjusted each time before beginning the experiment and
verified after completion of experiment by reducing the current in both the COILS to zero.

4) In order to avoid the interference of each magnetic field the axis of coils should be East -West.
West East
 EXPERIMENT

AIM
Determination of reverse saturation current I0 and material constant  of pn junction.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Study of P-N Junction, PN-01 : One
2. Oven : One
3. Sample Set : One
(BC-109-Si ; IN-34-Ge ; IN5408-Diode : Mounted on Teflon Plugs)

FORMULA USED :

Material constant is given by:

q V

kT  ln I

The reverse saturation current is given by

VG 0
VT
I 0  kT e
m

And Energy Band gap

dV mkT
VG 0  V  T 
dT q

For notations please see the theory of both the experiments.

DIAGRAM :

Circuit Diagram of pn junction diode in reverse bias

THEORY
The current I in a p-n junction is given by
 qV 
I  I 0  e kT  1 (1)
 
 
Where,

q, electronic charge = 1.602 X 10-19 coulomb

 ,material constant = 1 for Ge

= 2 for Si
K, Boltzman constant=1.381 X 10-23 J/K
T, Temperature in Kelvin
V, Junction voltage n volts

The reverse saturation current is usually too small to be measured directly. An indirect graphical
qV
kT
method may be obtained by taking logarithm of eqn. (1) for e 1 as,
qV
ln I = ln I0 +
kT

If, V and In I are plotted on a graph paper a straight line is obtained. This line intersects
the current (In I) axis at In I0 and its slope may be solved to compute  ,
 q V

kT  ln I

PROCEDURE
The diode to be tested is connected to the terminals with the polarity as indicated (already
connected). Readings are now recorded from the two display set to JUNCTION and CURRENT
respectively with the current source adjusted in steps from 100 µA to 10 mA.

OBSERVATIONS
Sample: BC 109 (Base – Emitter Junction)

Forward Current Junction Voltage

S.NO. ln I
I in µA V in Volts
1 100 4.61
2 200 5.30
3 400 5.99
4 700 6.55
5 1000 6.91
6 2000 7.60
7 4000 8.29
8 7000 8.85
9 10000 9.21

Graph 1 Reverse Saturation current

CALCULATIONS:
*Note: Values written here are just for your understanding. Actual readings may differ.

From graph no. 1, we get

ln I0 = -11.5

V 0.18
Slope of the curve 
 ln I 4.7

Therefore,

I0 =0.10 X 10-10 A

And,

q V 1.602  10 19  0.18

 
kT  ln I 1.381  10 23  305  4.7

 = 1.46

EXPERIMENT-II

AIM
Determination of Temperature Coefficient of Junction Voltage and Energy band - gap.

THEORY
The reverse saturation current is given by
VG 0

I 0  kT m e VT , and the diode forward current by

 VV  V
 
I  I 0 e  1  I 0e
T VT
 
 
V VG 0
VT
 kT e
m
, where for Si: m = 1.5,  = 2 and for Ge: m=2.0,  =1
 kT
Also VT  , taking logarithm,
q

V  VG 0
ln I = ln k + m ln T 
VT

At I=Constant, differentiating w.r.t. T

m d  V  VG 0 q 
0  0 
T dT  kT 

m q dV V  VG 0 q 1
0  .  . 2
T kT dT k T

0
m

q dV
. 
q
V  VG 0 
T kT dT kT 2

kT 2 m
 V  VG 0 
dV
0 . T
q T dT

dV mkT
VG 0  V  T 
dT q

At 300 K for Si,

mkT
 (1.5 X 2 X 1.381 X 10-23 X 300) / 1.602 X 10-19
q

= 0.078 V

Where slope of the V-T curve is the temperature coefficient of the junction voltage and VG0 is the
energy band-gap.

PROCEDURE
With the connections as in Experiment-I, the OVEN and SENSOR leads are inserted in the
respective sockets. The diode is put in the oven and its forward current is set to low value (say 1
mA) to avoid heating. The display-1 is now switched to TEMP, to read the oven temperature.

The Oven temperature can now be varied from room temperature to about 360 K in
suitable steps and the junction voltage may be recorded. The temperature controlled oven
requires about 5 minutes to stabilize at every new setting. Before noting any readings, one must
ensure that a few ON/OFF cycles of the oven have been completed as shown by the indicator.
OBSERVATIONS
Sample : BC 109 (Base – Emitter Junction)

If = 1.00 mA (Constant for the set)

S.No. Temperature Junction Voltage

1 305
2 313
3 320
4 328
5 336
6 344
7 353
8 360

Graph 2
CALCULATIONS
We know,

dV mkT
Energy Band gap VG0 = V(T) - T 
dT q

From graph no. 2

dV
At T = 300 K, V(T) = 0.720 V,  1.79  10 3 V / K
dT

mkT
& for Si at 300 K,  0.078V
q

VG0 = 0.720 – [300(-1.79X10-3)]-0.078

= 0.720 – [-0.357]-0.078

= 0.720 + 0.537 – 0.078

= 1.18 eV
 Four Probe Method

Aim:

Study the temperature dependence of resistivity of a semiconductor (Four probe method) and to determine
band gap of experimental material (Ge).

Apparatus Required:

Four probe apparatus, sample (a Ge crystal in form of a chip), oven, thermometer (260o ) constant power
supply, oven power supply, panel meters for measurement of current and voltage.

Formula Used : Resistivity of a semiconductor is

𝐸𝑔
𝜌 = 𝐴 exp( )
2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Where Eg is Band Gap in eV
kB is Boltzman constant =8.617*10-5 eVK-1
and T is absolute Temperature

Principle :

Ohm's law: If physical conditions (like temperature, mechanical stress) remains unchanged, then
potential difference across two ends of a conductor is proportional to current flowing through it
𝑉∝𝐼
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
The constant of proportionality, R, is called resistance of the conductor.

Resistivity: At a constant temperature, the resistance, R, of a conductor is (i) proportional to its length
and (ii) inversely proportional to its area of cross-section,
𝐿
R=ρ 𝐴
The constant of proportionality, ρ , is called resistivity of material of the conductor. Resistivity of a
material is equal to the resistance offered by a wire of this material of unit length and unit cross-sectional
area. Unit of resistance is ohm (Ω), and unit of resistivity is ohm-meter ( Ω-m )

Four probe method: The 4-point probe set up (Fig.I & Fig.II) consists of four equally spaced tungsten
metal tips with finite radius. Each tip is supported by springs on the end to minimize sample damage
during probing. The four metal tips are part of an auto-mechanical stage which travels up and down
during measurements. A high impedance current source is used to supply current through the outer two
probes, a voltmeter measures the voltage across the inner two probes to determine the sample resistivity.
Typical probe spacing ~ 2 mm. These inner probes draw no current because of the high input impedance
voltmeter in the circuit. Thus unwanted voltage drop (I R drop) at point B and point C caused by contact
resistance between probes and the sample is eliminated from the potential measurements. Since these
contact resistances are very sensitive to pressure and to surface condition (such as oxidation of either
surface).

Fig.I Schematic diagram of a Four Probe

Apparatus
Resistivity of Germanium (semiconductor) crystals or slices:
In order to use this four probe method in germanium crystals or slices it is necessary to assume that:
The resistivity of the material is uniform in the area of measurement and a non-conducting boundary is
produced when the surface of the crystal is in contact with an insulator. The derivation of equations given
below are involved. For each case it is assumed that the probes are equally spaced (spacing =s).

Case I: Resistivity Measurements on a Large Sample:

We assume that the metal tip is infinitesimal and sample are semi-infinite in lateral dimensions. For
bulk samples where the sample thickness, W >> S , the probe spacing, we assume a spherical protrusion
of current emanating from the outer probe tips. The resistivity is computed to be
𝑉
𝜌𝑜 = ( ) ∗ 2𝜋𝑠
𝐼
where
V = floating potential difference between the inner probes, unit: volt
𝐼 =current through the outer pair of probes, unit: ampere
s = spacing between point probes, unit: meter
ρ0 = resistivity, unit: ohm meter

Case II: Resistivity Measurements on a Thin Slice-Non-conducting Bottom Surface:

For the case of a non-conducting bottom on a slice the resistivity is computed from
𝜌0
𝜌= 𝑤
𝐺7 ( 𝑠 )
𝑊
𝐺7 ( ) can be calculated from graph (1) or from Table (1) given below or using formula
𝑆

G7 w / s  
2s
log e 2
w
Table 1
S.No. W/S G7(W/S) S.No. W/S G7(W/S)

1. 0.100 13.863 6. 1.000 1.504

2. 0.141 9.704 7. 1.414 1.223
3. 0.200 9.631 8. 2.000 1.094
4. 0.330 4.159 9. 3.333 1.0228
5. 0.500 2.780 10. 5.000 1.0070

Temperature dependence of resistivity of a semiconductor:

Intrinsic semi-conduction The process in which thermally or optically excited electrons contribute
to the conduction is called intrinsic semi-conduction. In the absence of photonic excitation, intrinsic semi-
conduction takes place at temperatures above 0 K as sufficient thermal agitation is required to transfer
electrons from the valence band to the conduction band. Conductivity for intrinsic semi-conduction. The
total electrical conductivity is the sum of the conductivities of the valence and conduction band carriers,
which are holes and electrons, respectively. It can be expressed as
σ = e(neμe + nhμh) (1)

where ne , μe are the electron's concentration and mobility,

and nh , μh are the hole's concentration and mobility, respectively.
Drift mobility determines the average drift velocity in the presence of an applied external field. It also
depends on the temperature. The mobility is a quantity that directly relates the drift velocity vd of charge
carriers to the applied electric field E across the material, i.e.,
μ = vd/ E …………. (2)

In the intrinsic region the number of electrons is equal to the number of holes, ne=nh=ni , so Equation (1)
implies that,
σ = e𝑛𝑖 (μe + μh) (3)

The electron density (electrons/volume) in the conduction band is obtained by integrating (density of
states x probability of occupancy of states) from the bottom to top of the conduction band. The detailed
calculations reveal that
3 𝐸
𝑛𝑖 = 𝑁𝑇 2 exp(− 2𝑘𝑔 𝑇 ) (4)
𝐵

Where N is a contant substituting 𝑛𝑖 in eq (3)

3 𝐸𝑔
σ =e (μe + μh) 𝑁𝑇 2 exp(− ) (5)
2𝑘𝐵 𝑇

This shows that conductivity depends on temperature it decreases exponentially with decrease in
temperature.
Temperature dependence of resistivity
𝐸𝑔
exp( )
2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝜌= 3 (6)
e (μe + μh ) 𝑁𝑇 2
Or,
𝐸
𝜌 = 𝐴 exp(2𝑘 𝑔𝑇 ) (7)
𝐵

(The factor T3/2 and the mobilities change relatively slow with temperature compared with exponential
term and hence can be dropped)

Where A is a constant Taking Log

𝐸𝑔
ln 𝜌 = 𝑙𝑛𝐴 + (8)
2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
or
1 𝐸𝑔
log 𝜌 = 𝐶 + 2.3026 ∗ 2𝑘 (9)
𝐵𝑇

where C is a constant, Rewriting eq. (9)

1 𝐸𝑔 1000
log 𝜌 = 𝐶 + ∗( )( ).
2.3026∗103 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇

1000
Therefore, if a graph is plotted log 𝜌 vs ( 𝑇
) it should be a straight line and band gap Eg can be
determined from its slope as follows :

𝐴𝐶 1 𝐸𝑔
1. Slope = 𝐵𝐶
= 2.3026∗103
∗ 2𝑘 ,
𝐵

2. Band gap Eg =2.3026*103*2*kB*slope eV, (Take Boltzman constant kB=8.617*10-5 eVK-1).

Method :

(1) The setting of 4-point probes on the semiconductor chip is a delicate process. So first understand
well the working of the apparatus. The semiconductor chip and probe set is costly.

(2) Note the values of probe spacing (S) and the thickness (W) of the semiconductor chip. Note the
type of semiconductor (germanium or something else).

(3) Make the circuit as shown in Fig.1. Put the sample in the oven (normally already placed by lab
instructor) at room temperature.

(4) Pass a milliampere range current (say 5 mA) in the sample using constant current power supply.
(5) The reading of the current through the sample is measured using milliammeter provided for this
purpose. The voltage is measured by a high impedance milli voltmeter connected to the inner
probes. The readings can be taken alternately on digital meter provided for this purpose.

(6) Note temperature of sample (oven) using thermometer inserted in the oven for this purpose.
(7) The oven temperature is increased a little, and its temperature noted after reaching steady state.
Again the constant current reading (advised to be kept the same) and the corresponding voltage
readings are taken.

(8) Repeat the procedure for different temperatures. Note the data in the observation table.
(9) Follow the procedure till you reach 160-1800 C.

(10) For each temperature, calculate the resistivity by using the relation.
𝜌0 𝑉 2𝜋𝑆
𝜌= 𝑊 = (𝐼) ( 𝑊 )
𝐺7 ( ) 𝐺7 ( )
𝑆 𝑆

(10) Compute l𝑜𝑔 𝜌 and 103 / T and write it in the observation table.

(11) Plot a graph between l𝑜𝑔 𝜌 and 103 / T . It is a straight line. Find its slope.

(12) Calculate the band gap using formula

Eg =2.3026*103*2*kB*slope eV

Use Boltzman constant kB= 8.617*10-5 eVK-1

( kB = 1.3806*10(-23) JK-1 and 1eV=1.6*10-19 J )

Graph 1
 Observations:

1. Semiconductor chip material = Germanium

2. Spacing (distance) between the probes, s = 2.0 mm = ............... m.
3. Thickness of the sample, w =0.5 mm = ................... m.

Table : Voltage across the inner probes for a constant current at different sample temperatures

Current ( I ) = …… mA

S.No. Temperature T Voltage across 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 −𝟏 Resistivit𝒚 𝝆 Log 𝝆 (calculated)

𝑲 𝑽 𝟐𝝅𝑺
(K) inner probes 𝑻 𝝆 = ( )( )
𝑾
(calculated) 𝑰 𝑮𝟕 ( )
(mV) 𝑺
(ohm-cm)

1
2
3
..
..

Calculations:

𝑊
1 For the given sample ( 𝑆 )= ……..

2. The correction factor G7 (w /s) =(from table 1 or graph 1) or calculate

G7(w/s) as follows:

G7 w / s  
2s
log e 2
w

3. Calculation of T (K-1) , 𝜌 (ohm-m) and 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜌

𝜌0 𝑉 2𝜋𝑆
𝜌= 𝑊 = ( )( 𝑊 )
𝐺7 ( ) 𝐼 𝐺7 ( )
𝑆 𝑆

1000
4. The graph between and log 𝜌 is plotted as shown in graph (2)
𝑇

𝐴𝐶
5. Slope of the straight line is 𝐵𝐶

6. Energy band gap Eg =2.3026*2*kB*slope *103(in eV)

 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
Graph 2 Variation of logρ with
𝑻

Explanation of Graph-2

The resistivity of a Germanium crystal as a function of inverse temperature. For this sample when
T < T’ K i.e. region (2), conduction is mainly due to the impurity carriers ( extrinsic region ). For T >
0

T’ 0K conduction is due to electrons transferred to the conduction band and the corresponding holes
created in the valence band (this is the intrinsic region).

Result:

1. The temperature dependence of the resistivity of semiconductor (germanium) chip is as shown in

the graph (2) . The resistivity decreases exponentially with the increase in T. That is as at low
temperatures resistivity is more and at high temperatures the resistivity is less.

2. The energy band gap for the given semiconductor (germanium) is = ……eV.

Precautions:

1. The surface of the semiconductor should be flat.

2. All the four probes should be collinear.
3. The adjustment of 4-point probes should be done gently, as the semiconductor chip is brittle.
4. The voltage should be measured using inner probes only using a high impedance millivoltmeter.
5. Temperature of the oven should not exceed the limits set by manufacturer of the probes and
chip.
 SURFACE TENSION

AIM: To determine the surface tension of water using the ‘break-away’ method.

To Do:
1. Creating a liquid layer between the edge of a metal ring and the surface of the liquid.
2. Measuring the tensile force acting on the metal ring just before the liquid layer breaks
away.
3. Determining the surface tension from the measured tensile force
4. To determine the density of material of ring.

APPARATUS USED:

Metal ring for measuring surface tension, Precision dynamometer 0.1N, Vernier caliper,
Crystallization dish, Laboratory Jack, Distilled water

FORMULA USED:
Part A (Surface Tension):-
The surface tension of water is
σ = ∆E / ∆A = F/4 π R
where R is the radius of the ring and
F=F2-F1
Weight of the ring F1 = …..N
Tensile force just before the layer breaks away F2 = ……N
Actual Tensile force with water F = F2 - F1 = ……N
Part B (for density of material of ring) :-
𝐹′
Density of material of ring 𝜌𝑅 = + ρ𝐿
𝑉𝑔

Where F’ = Apparent weight

V = Volume of Ring
g = gravitational force
ρ𝐿 = density of liquid, ρ𝑅 = density of material of ring
PRINCIPLE:
Part A (Surface Tension):-
The surface tension is due to the fact that a molecule on the surface of a liquid is acted
upon by attractive forces from adjacent molecules towards one side only (see Fig.1). The resultant
force acting on the molecule points into the liquid and is perpendicular to the surface. In order to
enlarge the surface, i.e, to take more molecules to the surface, energy has to be supplied. The ratio
of the energy ∆E supplied at a constant temperature and the change the surface ∆A is called surface
energy or surface tension of the liquid:
σ = ∆E/∆A

The surface tension can be measured, e.g, by means of metal ring with a sharp edge which at first
is immersed in the liquid so that it is completely wetted. If the ring is slowly taken out of the liquid,
a thin liquid layer is pulled up (see Fig. 2). The outside and inside surface of the liquid changed is
∆A = 4πR∆x
R: radius of the metal ring. When the metal ring is lifted by ∆x. Pulling up the ring requires the
force
F = ∆E/∆x to be applied. If this force is exceeded, the liquid layer breaks away.
Now the surface tension is
σ = ∆E / ∆A = F/4 π R
Part B (for density of material of ring) :-
When an object is partially or fully immersed in a liquid it looses weight, the apparent loss in weight is
equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by it.

Thus,
Volume of ring ‘V’ = π D h x
Where D = diameter of ring
h = height of ring; x = thickness of ring

Apparent weight = weight of ring – weight of liquid displaced

F’ = F1 – weight of liquid displaced
F’ = V 𝜌𝑅 g – V ρ𝐿 g
𝐹’
= 𝜌𝑅 - ρ𝐿
𝑉𝑔

𝐹′
this gives 𝜌𝑅 = + ρ𝐿 ; where 𝜌𝑅 is the density of the material of ring and ρ𝐿 = density of
𝑉𝑔
liquid.
SETUP PROCEDURE:
The experimental setup is illustrated in Fig.3.
1. Carefully clean the crystallization dish.
2. Carefully remove fat from the metal ring, e.g. with ethanol, and suspend it from the
dynamometer. Suspend the dynamometer from the clamp with hook so that the ring hangs
over the crystallization dish.
3. Set the laboratory stand to a height of approx.10cm.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Part A (Surface Tension):-
1. Determine the diameter of the metal ring.
2. Make the zero adjustment at the dynamometer using the movable tube.
3. Fill distilled water into the crystallization dish.
4. Lower the clamp with hook until the metal ring is completely immersed.
5. Cautiously lower the laboratory stand, always observing the tensile force at the
dynamometer. As soon as the edge of the metal ring emerges from the liquid, the liquid
layer is formed. When the tensile force does no longer increase although the laboratory
stand is further lowered, the layer is just before breaking away.
6. Read the tensile force just before the layer breaks away, and take it down.
7. Pour the distilled water out, and dry the crystallization dish and the metal ring.

Part B (for density of material of ring) :-

1. Take water in a beaker to half filed.
2. Measure weight of ring in air.
3. Now completely immerse ring in water so that on further dipping no change in reading of
dynamometer. Take the reading of dynamometer when completely immersed, say this
value is F’ (Apparent weight).
4. Measure the thickness of ring (x) with the help of screw gauge and height of ring (h) with
Vernier callipers.

OBSERVATIONS:
Part A (Surface Tension):-
Diameter of the metal ring: 2R = 61.5mm
S.No. Weight of the Mean Tensile force Mean Actual Surface
ring F1 (N) just before the F2 (N) Tensile force Tension
F1 (N) layer breaks with water F (σ)
away = F2 - F1 = F/4πR
F2 (N) ( mN/m)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Part B (for density of material of ring) :-

S.No. Apparent Weight of the Mean F’ (N)

ring
F’ (N)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Dynamometer reading when ring is completely immersed = F’ = ……..N

Height of the ring (h):-
Least count of Vernier calliper = ………..cm.
S.No. Main scale reading Vernier scale reading Total reading Mean reading
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1
2

Thickness of the ring (x):-

Least count of screw gauge = …….cm
S.No. Main scale reading Vernier scale reading Total reading Mean reading
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1
2

EVALUATION:
Part A (Surface Tension):-
Experimental value of surface tension for water: σ = …..mN/m
Literature value for water at 250C: σ =72.5 mN/m
Part B (for density of material of ring) :-
Density of the material of ring = ………g/cm3
RESULT:
Compared with other liquids, water distinguishes itself by a particularly high surface tension.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Carefully clean the crystallization dish.
2. Carefully remove any dirt from the metal ring.
3. Suspend the dynamometer from the clamp with hook so that the ring hangs over the
crystallization dish.
4. Cautiously measure the tensile force when the layer is just before breaking away.
5. When you finish experiment leave the dynamometer at zero force so that there is no tension
in the spring.
 Frank–Hertz experiment

Aim:

To determine the first excitation potential of gas (Argon) by Frank-Hertz experiment.

Apparatus:

Tetrode tube filled with experimental Argon gas, filament, power supply three variable voltage sources,
nanoammeter.

Experimental Set-up:

The experimental set up involves a tube containing low pressure experimental gas fitted with four
electrodes: an electron-emitting cathode (K), a mesh grid (G1) for minimizing space charge effects a
mesh grid (G2) for acceleration, and an anode (A). The anode was held at a slightly negative electrical
potential relative to the grid G2 (although positive compared to the cathode), so that electrons had to have
at least a corresponding amount of kinetic energy to reach it after passing the grid and thereby making the
dips in the plate current more prominent. Instruments were fitted to measure the current passing between
the electrodes, and to adjust the potential difference (voltage) between the cathode (negative electrode)
and the accelerating grids Fig (1).

Figure 1

Formula Used:
If Vn is the potential corresponding to nth peak and V1 is the potential corresponding to 1st peak
then
Vn  V1
Mean 1st excitation potential =
n 1
Where (n-1) is the number of dips between 1st and nth peak.
Introduction

From the early spectroscopic work it is clear that atoms emit radiation at discrete frequencies;
from Bohr’s model, the frequency of the radiation  is related to the change of energy levels through
E  h . It is then to be expected that transfer of energy to atomic electrons by any mechanism should
always be in discrete amounts. One such mechanism of energy transfer is through inelastic scattering of
low- energy electrons.
Franck and Hertz in 1914 set out to verify these considerations.
(a) It is possible to excite atoms by low energy electron bombardment.
(b) The energy transferred from electrons to the atoms always had discrete values.
(c) The values so obtained for the energy levels were in agreement with spectroscopic results.
The Franck–Hertz experiment elegantly supports Niels Bohr's model of the atom, with electrons orbiting
the nucleus with specific, discrete energies. Franck and Hertz were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in
1925 for this work.

Operating Principle:

The Frank-hertz tube in this instrument is a tetrode filled with the vapour of the experimental
substance Fig.1 indicates the basic scheme of experiment.
The electrons emitted by filament can be accelerated by the potential VG2K between the cathode
and the grid G2. The grid G1 helps in minimizing space charge effects. The grids are wire mesh and
allow the electrons to pass through. The plate (A) is maintained at a potential slightly negative with
respect to the grid G2. This helps in making the dips in the plate current more prominent. In this
experiment, the electron current is measured as a function of the voltage V G2K. As Voltage increases,
the electron energy goes up and so the electron can overcome the retarding potential V G2A to reach the
plate (A). This gives rise to a current in the ammeter, which initially increases. As the voltage further
increases, the electron energy reaches the threshold value to excite the atom in its first allowed excited
state. In doing so, the electrons lose energy and therefore the number of decreases. This decrease is
proportional to the number of inelastic collisions that have occurred. When the VG2K is increased further
and reaches a value twice that of the first excitation potential, it is possible for an electron to excite an
atom halfway between the grids, loose all its energy, and then gain a new enough energy to excite another
atoms resulting in a second dip in the current. The advantage of this type of configuration of the potential
is that the current dips are much more pronounced, and it is easy to obtain five fold or even larger
multiplicity in the excitation of the first level i.e. one can get 5 peaks (dips) or more.
The Franck–Hertz experiment elegantly supports Niels Bohr's model of the atom,
with electrons orbiting the nucleus with specific, discrete energies. Franck and Hertz were awarded
the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1925 for this work.

Franck-Hertz Experiment Set-up, Model : FH-2558, consists of the following:

→ Argon filled tetrode
→ Filament Power Supply : 2.6 -3.3V continuously variable
→ Power Supply For VG1K : 1.3 – 5V continuously variable
→ Power Supply For VG2A : 1.3 – 15V continuously variable
→ Power Supply For VG2K : 0 – 80V continuously variable
→ Multirange Analogue Voltmeter
Range : 0-5V, 0-15V & 0-100V
→ Multirange Analogue Voltmeter
Range : 0-1 (50 divisions)
Range Multiplier : 10-6 ,10-7, 10-8 & 10-9
The instrument can lead to a plot of the amplitude spectrum curve by means of point by point
measurement.

Procedure:

1. Before the power is switched ‘ON’ make sure all the control knobs are at their minimum position
and Current Multiplier knob at 10-7 or 10-8 or 10-9 (whichever suitable) position.

2. Switch ‘ON’ the power.

3. Turn the manual- Auto Switch to manual and check that the Scanning Voltage Knob is at its
minimum position.

4. Turn Voltage Display Selector to VG1K and adjust the VG1K knob until voltmeter reads 1.5V.
5. Turn Voltage display selector to VG 2 A and adjust the VG 2 A knob until the voltmeter reads 7.5V.

When you have finished step 1-5, you are ready to do the experiment.
Rotate VG 2 K knob and observe the variation of plate current Ip with the increase of VG 2 K . The current
reading would show maxima and minima periodically. The magnitude of maxima could be adjusted
suitably by adjusting the filament voltage and the value of Current Multiplier. Now take the systematic
readings, VG 2 K vs. Plate current (Ip). For better resolution, the reading may be taken at an interval of 1V
(1/2 division). Plot the graph with output current Ip on Y-axis and accelerating voltage VG 2 K at X-axis.

Observation Table :

VG1K
: 1.5V
VG 2 A
: 7.5V

S No. Acceleration Potential VG2K Plate Current Ip

(Volts) (nano Amperes)
1.
2.
3.
..
..
..

Results:

1. The first excitation potential of experimental gas (Argon) is found to be …………..

2. Graph with output current on Y-axis and accelerating voltage VG 2 K at X-axis is plotted which
shows series of dips in current at approximately V volt (say) increments (fig 2).

3. The current increases steadily once again if the voltage is increased further, until 2V volts is
reached (exactly V + V volts).

4. At 2V volts a similar sharp drop is observed.

Precautions:

1. During the experiment (manual), when the voltage is over 60V, please pay attention to the output
current indicator, if the ammeter reading increase suddenly, decrease the voltage at once to avoid
the damage of the tube.
2. If you want to change the value of VG1K , VG 2 A and Filament Voltage during experiment, please
first adjust the value of VG 2 K to ‘Zero’.

3. Whenever the filament voltage is changed, please allow 2-3 minutes for its stabilisation.
4. When the Frank-Hertz Tube is already in the socket, please make sure the following before the
power is switched ‘ON’ or ‘OFF’, to avoid damage to the tube.

5. Manual – Auto switch is on Manual and Scanning and Filament Voltage knob at its minimum
position (rotate it anticlockwise) and current multiplier knob at 10-7.

Figure 2
 Planck’s constant (Photo Electric Effect)

Aim:

1. To determine Planck’s Constant and work function using photo electric effect.
2. To verify inverse square law of radiation.

Apparatus used:

Light source, Digital voltmeter and ammeter, Vacuum photo tube, filters of different colors.

Formula used:

Stopping potential is given by

 -
ℎ
Vs =
𝑒
where

Vs = Stopping potential
e = Electronic charge
 = Frequency of light used
 = Work function
h = Planck’s constant
The slope of straight line obtained by plotting a graph Vs as a function of  yields and the intercept of
ℎ
𝑒
extrapolated point  = 0 gives the work function of Cesium Antimony film (Cs-Sb)

Theory:

It was observed as early as 1905 that most metals under influence of radiation, emit electrons.
This phenomenon was termed as photoelectric emission. The detailed study of it has shown:

1. That the emission process depends strongly on frequency of radiation.

2. For each metal there exists a critical frequency such that light of lower frequency is unable to
liberate electrons, while light of higher frequency always does.

3. The emission of electron occurs within a very short time interval after arrival of the radiation and
number of electrons is strictly proportional to the intensity of this radiation.

The experimental facts given above are among the strongest evidence that the electromagnetic
radiation is quantified and the radiation consists of quanta of energy E= h  where is  the frequency of
the radiation and h is the Planck’s constant. These quanta are called photons.
Further it is assumed that electrons are bound inside the metal surface with an energy e  , where  is
called the work function. It then follows that if the frequency of the light is such that
h  > e  , it will be possible to eject photoelectron, while if h  <e  , it would be impossible.
In the former case, the excess energy of photon appears as kinetic energy of the electron, so that
 h  = 2 mv2 + e  mv2 = h  - e 
1 1
......(1) or 2
which is the famous photoelectric equation formulated by Einstein in 1905.
If we apply a retarding potential V0 so as to stop the photo electrons completely, it is known as stopping
potential Vs. At that instant
mv2 = eVs or eVs = h  - e 
1
2
-  .
ℎ
Or Vs = 𝑒
So when we plot a graph V0 as a function of  , the slope of the straight line yields
ℎ
𝑒
and the intercept of
extrapolated point at  =0 gives work function  .

To verify inverse square law of radiation using a photoelectric cell

If L is the luminous intensity of an electric lamp and E is the illuminiscence (intensity of illumination) at
point r from it, then according to inverse square law.
𝐿
E = 2
𝑟
If this light is allowed to fall on the cathode of a photo-electric cell, then the photo-electric current (I)
would be proportional to E.
𝐿
E = 𝑟2 = 𝐾. 𝐼

1
Hence a graph between 𝑟2
and I is a straight line, which verify the inverse square law of radiation.

Apparatus Used :

The apparatus consists of the following :

1. Photo Sensitive Device : Vacuum photo tube.

2. Light source : Halogen tungsten lamp 12V/35W.

3. Colour Filters : 635nm, 570nm, 540nm, 500nm & 460nm

4. Accelerating Voltage : Regulated Voltage Power Supply

Output : ±15 V continuously variable through multi-turn pot
Display : 3 ½ digit 7-segment LED
Accuracy : ±0.2

5. Current Detecting Unit : Digital Nanoammeter

It is high stability low current measuring instrument
Range : 1000 [A, 100 [A, 10 [A & 1[A with 100 % over ranging facility]
Resolution : 1nA at 1 [A range]
Display : 3 ½ digit 7-segment LED
Accuracy : ±0.2%

5. Power Requirement : 220V ± 10%, 50Hz.

 6. Optical Bench : The light source can be moved along it to adjust the distance between light
source and phototube. Scale length is 400 mm. A drawtube is provided to install colour filters, a
focus lens is fixed in the back end.

STRUCTURE:

1. Light Source, 12V/35W halogen tungsten lamp.

2. Guide. Move the light source along it, the distance between light source and receiving dark box
can be adjusted.
3. Scale, 400mm total length. The center of the vacuum phototube is used as zero point.
4. Drawtube. The forepart is used for installing color filter; a focus lens is fixed in the back end.
5. Cover. Used to cover chamber containing Phototube.
6. Focus lens. Make a clear image of light source on the cathode area of phototube.
7. Vacuum Phototube. The sensitive component.
8. Base for holding the Phototube.
9. Digital Meter. Show current (µA), or voltage (V).
10. Display mode switch. For switching the display between voltage and current mode.
11. Current Multiplier.
12. Light Intensity Switch. Switch for choosing light intensity. Up is of strong, middle is of off; down
is for weak.
13. Filter Set. Four pieces.
14. Lens Cover. (For protecting the phototube from stray light during ideal period).
15. Accelerate voltage adjustor. Knob for adjusting accelerate voltage.
16. Voltage direction , switch. Switch for choosing voltage direction. ±15V accelerated voltage is
provided.
17. Power switch.
18. Power indicator.
 Schematic Diagram
(Draw in practical note book)

Procedure:

For determination of Planck’s Constant and work function:

1. Insert the red color filter (635nm), set light intensity switch (12) at strong light, voltage direction
switch (16) at ‘-‘, display mode switch (10) at current display.

2. Adjust to de-accelerating voltage to 0 V and set current multiplier (4) at X0.001. Increase the de-
accelerating to decrease the photo current to zero. Take down the de-accelerating voltage (Vs)
corresponding to zero current of 635nm wavelength. Get the Vs of other wave lengths, the same
way. (Repeat for at least 2 distances say 40cm and 30cm)

For verification of inverse square law:

1. The connection would be same as before except a positive voltage would be applied to the anode
with respect cathode.

2. Place a filter in front of the photoelectric cell.

3. Keeping the voltage constant and position of photocell fixed, increase the distance of lamp from
photo-cell in small steps (of 2 cm). In case note the position of the lamp r on the optical bench
and the current I.

4. The experiment may be repeated with other filters (at least 2 filters).
Observation:

Table 1 For determination of Planck’s Constant and work function

S.No. Filters  (sec-1x1014) Stopping Voltage (Vs in Volts)

d = 40 cm d = 30 cm
1 Red (635nm) 4.72
2 Yellow I (585nm) 5.13
3 Green (500nm) 6.00
4 Blue (460nm) 6.50

Table 2 For verification of inverse square law:

S,No. Distance between lamp and photo-cell 1 I (µA)

𝑋103
(r) 𝑟2 Red Green
filter filter
1 18cm 3.09
2 20cm 2.50
3 22cm 2.07
4 24cm 1.74
5 26cm 1.48
6 28cm 1.28
7 30cm 1.11

Calculations :

From graph (1) Vs vs 

h = e × slope of graph

∆𝑉𝑠
h=e
∆ 
Substituting the values of ∆Vs and ∆  from graph (1)
h can be found, h = ….. Joule– sec.
Standard value of h = 6.62x10-34 Joules-sec
Again from graph (1) intercept at  = 0.
Work function  = intercept on y axis = ………………volts.

Result:
1. Planck’s constant ‘h’ is found to be work function h = ……..J-sec
 = ……..V.
1
2. Graph between 𝑟2 along X axis and I along Y axis is a straight line hence proves the inverse
square law of radiation.
Precautions:
1. This instrument should be operated in a dry, cool indoor space.

2. Phototube particularly should not be exposed to direct light, particularly at the time of
installation of phototube; the room should be only dimly lit.

3. The instrument should be kept in dust proof and moisture proof environment, if there is dust on
the phototube, color filter, lens etc. clean it by using absorbent cotton with a few drops of alcohol.

4. The color filter should be stored in dry and dust proof environment.

5. After finishing the experiment remember to switch off power and cover the drawtube (4) with the
lens cover (15) provided. Phototube is light sensitive device and its sensitivity decrease with
exposure to light and due to ageing.
 Single Slit Diffraction

Aim:

To study the intensity distribution due to diffraction from single slit and to determine the slit
width (d).

Apparatus:
Optical bench, diode Laser, screen with a rectangular slit, photo cell, micro ammeter

Formula Used:

Slit width ‘ d’ is given by

2𝐷𝜆
d=
𝛽

where D = is the distance of screen from slit

λ = Wave length diode laser (650 nm)
β = width of central maxima

First minima on either side of Central maxima is given by condition for diffraction minima. viz,
d sin θ = m λ . with m = 1
Theory:
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT:

Light travels in a straight line. However, when light passes through a small hole, there is
a certain amount of spreading of light. Similarly, when light passes by an obstacle, it appears to
bend round the edges of the obstacle and enters its geometrical shadow.
The phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of small obstacles or apertures and its
consequent spreading into the regions of geometrical shadow is called diffraction of light.
The effect of diffraction is more pronounced if the size of the aperture or the obstacle is of
the order of the wavelength of the light. As the wavelength of visible light (~ 10-6 m) is much
smaller than the size of the objects around us, so diffraction of light is not easily seen. On the

Department of Physics, IIT Roorkee ©

1
other hand sound waves have large wavelength (~ 101 m) so sound waves easily exhibit
diffraction by the objects around us.
Here we study the Fraunh offer class of diffraction in which light source is at infinite
distance from obstacle, to ensure this source S of monochromatic light is placed at the focus of a
convex lens L1. A parallel beam of light and hence a plane wave front WW’ gets incident on a
narrow rectangular slit AB of width d.
The incident wave front disturbs all parts of the slit AB simultaneously. According to
Huygens theory all parts of the slit AB will become source of secondary wavelets, which all start
in same phase. These wavelets spread out as rays in all directions, thus causing diffraction of light
after it emerges through slit AB. Suppose the diffraction pattern is focused by a convex lens L2 on
a screen placed in its focal plane.

Figure 1 Diffraction through single slit

Calculation of path difference:

Suppose the secondary wavelets diffracted at an angle are focused at point P. The secondary
wavelets start from different parts of the slit in same phase but they reach point P in different phases.
The path difference (p) b/w the wavelets from A & B will be
p = BP-AP = BN = AB sin = d sin θ
Central Maxima:
All the secondary wavelets going straight across the slit AB are focused at the central point O of
the screen. The wavelets from any two corresponding points of the two halves of the slit reach the
point O in the same phase, they add constructively to produce a central bright fringe, whose width
is decided by the first minima on either side.
Positions of minima:
Let the point P be so located on the screen that the path difference p = λ and the angle be θ1.
Then from the above equation, we get .

d sin θ1 = λ
we can divide the slit AB into two halves AC & CB. Then the path difference b/w the wavelets
from A & C will be λ/2. Similarly corresponding to every point in the upper half AC, there is a

Department of Physics, IIT Roorkee

2
point in the lower half CB for which the path difference is λ/2. Hence they interfere destructively
so as to produce a minimum.
Thus the condition for first minima is
d sin θ1 = λ
similarly the condition for second minima is
d sin θ2 = 2λ
Hence the condition for nth minima can be written as
d sin θn = nλ

Now lets calculate the width of central maxima

The directions of 1st minima on either side of central maximum are given by
𝜆
θ1 ≈ sin θ1 = 1. …………………(1)
𝑑
Angle θ1 is called half angular width of central maximum.
2𝜆
⸫ Angular width of central maximum 2 θ1 =
𝑑

If D is the distance of the screen from the single slit, For the lens L2 kept close to the slit D ≈ f 2
then the linear width of central maximum will be
2𝐷𝜆
β = D * 2 θ1 = …………. (2)
𝑑

Intensity of secondary maxima decreases with the order of the maximum. The reason is that the
intensity of the central maximum is due to the constructive interference of wavelets from all parts
of the contribution of wavelets form one third part of the slit (wavelets from remaining two parts
interfere destructively), the second secondary maximum is due to the contribution of wavelets from
the one fifth part only (the remaining four interfere destructively) and so on. Hence the intensity of
secondary maximum decreases with the increase in the order ‘n’ of the maximum.

Figure 2 Diffraction pattern obtained through single slit

Department of Physics, IIT Roorkee

3
Set-up and Procedure

1. Switch on the laser source about 15 minutes before the experiment is due to start. This ensures
that the intensity of light from the laser source is constant.

2. Allow the laser beam to fall on a slit formed in the screen provided. The photo detector is secured
to a mount and is kept as far behind the slit as possible.

3. Try to observe the diffraction pattern by putting a screen (paper) in front of photo detector. After
getting diffraction pattern on the screen (paper) remove it.

4. The intensity distribution of the diffraction pattern is measured with the help of a photo detector
connected to a microammeter. Adjust the position of photo detector somewhere around second
minima & keep on recording the current with the position of photo detector moving it towards
central maxima and continue in same direction till second minima on other side is obtained.

5. Take 20-25 readings in this range.

6. Measure the distance between slit & photo detector.

7. Plot a graph (position of detector) vs (current). It will be of shape shown in fig(3). Now measure
the distance (β) between two first minima on either side of central maxima from graph. This is the
width of central maxima ‘β’. Now calculate width of slit using eq (2).

Observation table

Wave length of Diode laser λ = 650 nm.

Position of Slit (a) = ……. cm.
Position of detector on bench (b) = …….. cm.

Table 1:
S.No. Lateral Position of the Current in ammeter
detector (cm) ( amp)
1
2
3
..
..
..
..

Department of Physics, IIT Roorkee 4

 Table 2:
S.No. Distance between two first Distance between the Slit width
minimum on either side of detector & slit (microns)
central maxima (β in cm) 𝟐𝑫𝝀
D =(a-b) in cm d=
from the graph 𝜷

Figure 3 Diffraction pattern obtained through single slit

Result:

1. The intensity distribution due to diffraction at a single slit was studied.

2. The width of central maxima ‘β’=……mm
3. The width of the single slit is……..microns.

Precautions:
1. The laser beam should not penetrate into eyes as this may damage the eyes permanently.
2. The photo detector should be as away from the slit as possible.
3. The laser should be operated at a constant voltage 220V obtained from a stabilizer. This avoids
the flickering of the laser beam.
4. Laser should be started at least 15 minutes before starting the experiment.
5. Scale of vernier should be rotated slowly.

Department of Physics, IIT Roorkee 5

 List of Experiments for B. Tech. 1st Year Physics Laboratory 2023-24

1. To study the variation of magnetic field with position of paired coils in Helmholtz arrangement along
the axis of the coils carrying current.
2. Determination of reverse saturation current I0 and material constant in PN junction.
3. Study the temperature dependence of resistivity of a semiconductor (Four probe method) and to determine
band gap of experimental material (Ge).
4. Measuring the surface tension using the ‘break-away’ method.
5. To determine the first excitation potential of a gas by Frank- Hertz Experiment.
6. To determine Planck’s Constant and work function using photo electric effect.
7. To study the intensity distribution due to diffraction from single slit and to determine the slit width.

INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS

1. Essential Component:
Laboratory work is an integral part of the course and satisfactory completion of it is required.
Your performance in the laboratory is taken into account in evaluating the performance in the
course. The laboratory grade is based on the reports you write, and on your performance in
examinations on laboratory work.
The objective of the laboratory is learning. The experiments are designed to illustrate phenomenon of different
areas of Physics and to expose you to measuring instruments. Conduct the experiments with interest and with an
attitude of learning. The duration of the laboratory is for 2 hours. You are supposed to be fully engaged for the
complete duration of the laboratory. You cannot leave the laboratory until the completion of the laboratory class
hours. Work quietly and carefully.

2. Pre-lab Preparedness:
Be prompt in arriving to the laboratory and come well prepared for the experiment. Before coming to the
laboratory class you must carefully read the instructions given for performing the experiment of the day. Unless
you come fully prepared with this background material you will not be able to complete the required work and
you will miss the opportunity of learning all aspects of the experiment. Thus, for your own benefit, prior study
of the instruction manual is very important.

3. Equipment needs your care:

On reaching the laboratory you should check the apparatus provided and ascertain if there are any shortage or
malfunctions. Set up the equipment in accordance with the instructions. Proceed
carefully and methodically. Remember that scientific equipment is expensive and quite susceptible to damage.
So handle it carefully. If the apparatus is complicated ask the instructor to
inspect before you proceed with the actual performance of the equipment. Every time switch off the setup
before leave. Please do not fiddle idly with apparatus. Handle instruments with care. Report any breakage to the
instructor. Return all the equipment you have signed out for the purpose of your experiment.

4. You must bring practical notebook and an observation record book in every practical class for
recording the observations. All work must be done in ink.
You must get at least one observation checked and signed by your instructor, failing which, your report
will not be graded. Make the measurements required and record them neatly in tabular form. Double-check to
make sure that you have recorded all necessary data. You must complete all experimental work in one class of
two hours. After completing the experiments get the reading signed by the instructor and get new experiment
allotted for the next turn.
 The completed report must be submitted in next practical class and get it checked by the concerned
faculty. You must be ready for viva about the experiment being checked because you
will be evaluated in each class for sessional marks.

5. Acceptable results with given apparatus:

It is more important to see what results you get with given apparatus rather than what is the ‘correct’
result. The apparatus given to you is capable of certain accuracy and your result may be completely acceptable
even if it differs from ‘correct’ results. You must learn to do things on your own even if you might make
mistakes some time.
Be totally honest in recording and representing your data. Never make up readings or doctor them to get
a better fit for a graph. If a particular reading appears wrong repeat the measurement carefully. In any event all
the data recorded in the table have to be faithfully displayed on the graph.

6. Graphics:
Each graph should occupy one complete sheet; the information as to quantities plotted, scale chosen and
units should be mentioned clearly in ink along complete figure caption. All presentations of data, table, graphs
and calculations should be neatly and carefully done.

7. Figures/Circuit diagrams:
Neat and clean figures/ circuit diagrams should be drawn for each practical with complete figure
captions.

8. Following is the Format of the Reports:

a. Date
b. Objective
c. Apparatus used
d. Formulae used
e. Observation (least count, tables should be neat and self explanatory)
f. Calculations (on the left side of the page) including maximum permissible error (MPE).
g. Results: Experimental value ± MPE; Standard value (Calculation of maximum possible
error is essential. Compare it with the result)
h. Precautions and sources of error.

You must keep your work place neat and clean and leave the lab neat and tidy.

Link for the Lab Manuals/Videos – https://www.iitr.ac.in/

Click on Departments → Physics → Academics → Teaching Laboratories → B.Tech Lab
for 1st year.

O.C. B.Tech. Lab

 Errors in Measurement
Measurement is the basis of scientific study. All measurements are, however, approximate values (not true values) within the limitation
of measuring device, measuring environment, process of measurement and human error . If you measure the same object two different
times, the two measurements may not be exactly the same. The difference between two measurements is called a variation in the
measurements.
Another word for this variation - or uncertainty in measurement - is "error." This "error" is not the same as a "mistake." It does not
mean that you got the wrong answer. The error in measurement is a mathematical way to show the uncertainty in the measurement. It
is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of what you were measuring. We seek to minimize uncertainty
and hence error to the extent possible.
Further, there is important aspect of reporting measurement. It should be consistent, systematic and revealing in the context of accuracy
and precision.
Accuracy is a measure of how close the result of the measurement comes to the "true", "actual", or "accepted" value. It is
associated with systematic error.
Precision of measurement is related to the ability of an instrument to measure values in greater details. The precision of a
measuring instrument is determined by the smallest unit to which it can measure. The precision is said to be the same as the
smallest fractional or decimal division on the scale of the measuring instrument. It is associated with random error.

Ways of Expressing Error in Measurement:

1. Greatest Possible Error:

Because no measurement is exact, measurements are always made to the "nearest something", whether it is stated or
not. The greatest possible error when measuring is considered to be one half of that measuring unit. For example, you
measure a length to be 3.4 cm. Since the measurement was made to the nearest tenth, the greatest possible error will be
half of one tenth, or 0.05. For example, if a measurement made with a metric ruler is 5.6 cm and the ruler has a precision of 0.1
cm, then the tolerance interval in this measurement is 5.6 0.05 cm, or from 5.55 cm to 5.65 cm. Any measurements within
this range are "tolerated" or perceived as correct.
2. Absolute Error and Relative Error:

Error in measurement may be represented by the actual amount of error, or by a ratio comparing the error to the size of the
measurement.
The absolute error of the measurement shows how large the error actually is, while the relative error of the measurement shows how
large the error is in relation to the correct value.
Absolute errors do not always give an indication of how important the error may be. If you are measuring a football field and the
absolute error is 1 cm, the error is virtually irrelevant. But, if you are measuring a small machine part (< 3cm), an absolute error of 1
cm is very significant. While both situations show an absolute error of 1 cm., the relevance of the error is very different. For this reason,
it is more useful to express error as a relative error. We will be working with relative error.
Absolute Error:

Absolute error is simply the amount of physical error in a measurement.

For example, if you know a length is 3.535 m + 0.004 m, then 0.004 m is an absolute error. Absolute error is positive.The absolute
error is the difference between the measured value and the actual value. (The absolute error will have the same unit label as the measured
quantity.)
Relative Error:

Relative error is the ratio of the absolute error of the measurement to the accepted measurement. The relative error expresses the "relative
size of the error" of the measurement in relation to the measurement itself.

Percent of Error or Percentage Error:

Error in measurement may also be expressed as a percent of error. The percent of error is found by multiplying the relative error by
100%.

We must understand that an error in basic quantities propagate through mathematical formula leading to compounding of errors and
misrepresentation of quantities
The error is communicated in different mathematical operations as detailed below:
(i) For x = (a ± b), Δx = ± ( Δa + Δb)
(ii) For x = a * b , Δx/x = ± ( Δa/a + Δb/b)
(iii) For x = a/b , Δx/x = ± ( Δa/a + Δb/b)
(iv) For x= anbm /cp, Δx/x = ± ( nΔa/a +m Δb/b + pΔc/c)
General Rule:
𝐴𝑝 ∗𝐵𝑞
Let 𝑍= ,
𝐶𝑟
Taking log on both sides
log Z = p*log A + q*log B - r*log C

𝑑𝑍 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐶
Differentiating we get =𝑝 +𝑞 −𝑟
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶

then maximum fractional error in Z is given by

∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵 ∆𝐶
= 𝑝 ±𝑞 ±𝑟
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Some Examples :
Example(1)
Let y=ab.
Then max. permissible error (m.p.e.) in y is obtained as
ln y=ln a + ln b, or y / y  a / a  b / b
here a is the least count of the instrument with which a is measured, similarly b is the least count of the instrument with which b
is measured and y is the mean value of the function obtained in the lab. Hence the experimental value of y = mean y  y .
Example(2)
The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is T  2 L / g . Measured value of L is 20.0 cm known to 1 mm accuracy and time
for 100 oscillations of the pendulum is found to be 90 s using a wrist watch of 1 s resolution. What is the accuracy in the g?
Solution :
As T  2 L or g = 4π2(L/T2)
g
g L T
 100  100  2  100 , Now L=20.0cm, L =0.1cm, T for 100 oscillation = 90sec , T =1 sec
g L T
g 0.1 1
  100   100  2   100 = 0.5+2.22=2.72%=3%
g 20.0 90
Example(3)
Find the relative error in Z, if Z=A4 B1/3 / CD3/2
Z A 1 B C 3 D
Solution . In relative error in Z is  4    
Z A 3 B C 2 D
Example(4)
a 2b 3
A physical quantity X is given by X  . If the percentage errors of measurement in a,b,c and d are 4%, 2%, 3% and 1%
c d
respectively, then calculate the percentage error in X.
a 2b 3
Solution Given X  , The percentage error in X is given by
c d
X a b c 1 d
100  2  100  3  100    100 =2x4% + 3x2% + 3% + 1/2x1%
X a b c 2 d
Diameter of the wire causes maximum error in the value of 
Example(5)
The specific resistance  of a thin wire of radius r cm, resistance R  and length L cm given by   r R
2

L
If r=0.26  0.02 cm, R=32 1 and L= 78  0.01 cm, find the percentage error in  .
Solution The percentage error in specific resistance  is given by
  r R L   2  0.02 1 0.01 
 100   2     100 =     100 = [0.15 + 0.03 + 0.0001]x100 = 0.1801x100 = 0.18x100 = 18%
  r R L   0.26 32 78 