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 Energy Bands in Material
❑ Valence Band
▪ Valence band has low energy. Si
▪ Valence Band is associated with valence electrons.
Si Si Si
▪ Valence electrons are bounded in atomic Si

structure, so valence electrons don’t participate in Si

current flow.
❑ Conduction Band Silicon Atom Silicon Atomic Structure
▪ Conduction band has higher energy.
Energy
▪ Conduction band is associated with free electrons.
▪ Free electrons are not bounded in atomic
Conduction Band
structure, so free electrons only participate in
current flow. Forbidden Energy Gap
❑ Forbidden Energy Gap
▪ Gap between the valence band and the Valence Band
conduction band is a forbidden energy gap.
 Classification of Solid Material

Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

▪ Energy Band Energy Energy Energy

Conduction Band
Conduction Band
Conduction Band Forbidden Energy Gap
Forbidden Energy Gap
= 1.1eV for Si > 6eV
Valence Band
Valence Band Valence Band

▪ Conductivity ❖ High Conductivity ❖ Moderate Conductivity ❖ Low Conductivity

𝝈 > 𝟏𝟎𝟕 (𝟏/𝛀𝒎) 𝝈 ∈ (𝟏𝟎𝟒 , 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )(𝟏/𝛀𝒎) 𝝈 < 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 (𝟏/𝛀𝒎)
▪ Resistivity ❖ Low Resistivity ❖ Moderate Resistivity ❖ High Resistivity
𝝆 < 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 (𝛀𝒎) 𝝆 ∈ (𝟏𝟎−𝟒 , 𝟏𝟎𝟔 )(𝛀𝒎) 𝝆 > 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 (𝛀𝒎)
▪ Examples ❖ Cu, Al ❖ Si, Ge ❖ Mica, Wood
 Types of Semiconductor Materials
Semiconductor

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

❑ Intrinsic Semiconductor
▪ It is Pure semiconductor material. N-Type P-Type
▪ It has a Lower conductivity, compared to extrinsic semiconductors.
▪ At 0K temperature, no free charges are available.
Si
▪ It has an equal number of free electrons and holes.
▪ It has a negative temperature coefficient. (𝑻 ↑ ≡ 𝑹 ↓)
▪ Examples: Si and Ge.
Si Si Si
❑ Extrinsic Semiconductor
▪ Impurities with pure semiconductor makes extrinsic semiconductor.
▪ Due to impurities, it has higher conductivity. Si
▪ Here, impurities will define the number of free electrons and holes.
▪ Impurities are added in the unit of PPM (Part Per Million). Pure Silicon
▪ Example: N – Type and P – Type
 N – Type Semiconductor P – Type Semiconductor

Si Si Si Si Si Si

Free electron Free Hole

Si P Si Si Al Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si

▪ In N – Type Semiconductor material, we add ▪ In P – Type Semiconductor material, we add

pentavalent impurities (5 electrons in outer trivalent impurities (3 electrons in outer orbit).
orbit). ▪ So, with every impurity, one free hole is added.
▪ So, with every impurity, one free electron is ▪ It is also known as Acceptor impurity.
added. ▪ Impurities can be from third group (Aluminium –
▪ It is also known as donor impurity. Al, Boron – B)
▪ Impurities can be from group of five ▪ Majority carrier are holes and Minority carrier are
(Phosphorous – P, Antimony – Sb) electrons.
▪ Majority carrier are electrons and Minority carrier
are holes.
 Current in Semiconductor Materials
❑ Drift Velocity 𝐕𝐝
▪ It is the velocity of the charge carrier due to the external electric field E.
𝐕𝐝 = 𝛍𝐄
d a
▪ Where, 𝐕𝐝 is the drift velocity
u n
F
▪ µ is the Mobility of the charge carrier

g
▪ E is the applied external electric field.

r i n
e e
Hole
g in
E n
Electric Field E

Random Motion without external E Field

Random Motion with external E Field
❑ Semiconductor Material under external electric field E.

Holes
Electrons

Electric Field E

V
▪ When the external electric field E is applied to the
semiconductor, holes experience the force in the direction of
the electric field and electrons experience the force in the
opposite direction of the electric field.
∴ 𝐅 = 𝐪𝐄
▪ Where, F is the force
▪ q is the charge
▪ E is the electric field
❑ Drift Current I
▪ It is the flow of electric current I due to the motion of charge carriers on applying
external electric field E.
∴ 𝐈 = 𝐧𝐞𝐀𝐕𝐝

a
𝐈

d
∴ = 𝐧𝐞𝐕𝐝

n
𝐀

u
∴ 𝐉 = 𝐧𝐞𝐕𝐝
∴ 𝐉 = 𝐧𝐞𝛍𝐄

g F
n
▪ Where, n is the charge carrier concentration.

er i
▪ A is the cross-sectional area of the material.

e
▪ J is the current density.
∴ 𝐉𝐧 = 𝐧𝐪𝛍𝐧 𝐄
g in
n
∴ 𝐉𝐩 = 𝐩𝐪𝛍𝐩 𝐄

E
▪ Where, 𝐉𝐧 and 𝐉𝐩 are the current density of electrons and holes, respectively.
▪ 𝛍𝐧 and 𝛍𝐩 are the mobility of electrons and holes, respectively.
▪ So, the Total current density of semiconductor material
∴ 𝐉 = 𝐧𝐪𝛍𝐧 𝐄 + 𝐩𝐪𝛍𝐩 𝐄 = 𝐧𝛍𝐧 + 𝐩𝛍𝐩 𝐪𝐄 = 𝛔𝐄
▪ Here, σ is conductivity of material.
❑ Diffusion Current in semiconductor material.
▪ Diffusion current happens due to the concentration gradient of charge in the material.
▪ Motion of charge carrier happens from higher to lower concentrations.

Holes

P Type Semiconductor
Charge Concentration

Distance x
▪ Diffusion current density due to electrons:
𝐝𝐧
∴ 𝐉𝐧 = 𝐪𝐃𝐧
𝐝𝐱
▪ Diffusion current density due to holes:
𝐝𝐩
∴ 𝐉𝐏 = −𝐪𝐃𝐏
𝐝𝐱
𝐝𝐧 𝐝𝐩
▪ Where, and are the concentration gradient of electrons and holes, respectively.
𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱
▪ 𝐃𝐧 and 𝐃𝐩 are the diffusion coefficients of electrons and holes, respectively.
▪ So, the Total current density of semiconductor material = Drift current density +
Diffusion current density.
▪ For N Type semiconductor, total current density:
𝐝𝐧
∴ 𝐉 = 𝐧𝐪𝛍𝐧 𝐄 + 𝐪𝐃𝐧
𝐝𝐱
▪ For P Type semiconductor, total current density:
𝐝𝐩
∴ 𝐉 = 𝐩𝐪𝛍𝐩 𝐄 − 𝐪𝐃𝐩
𝐝𝐱
 Mass Action Law in Semiconductor
❑ Statement: The product of Electron concentration and Hole concentration is equal to
the square of the Intrinsic concentration of the semiconductor.
𝐧𝐩 = 𝐧𝐢 𝟐
▪ Where, n is electron concentration. (1/𝐜𝐦𝟑 )
▪ p is hole concentration. (1/𝐜𝐦𝟑 )
▪ 𝐧𝐢 is intrinsic concentration. (1/𝐜𝐦𝟑 )

Energy
Si Si Si

Conduction Band
Si Si Si
Forbidden Energy Gap

Valence Band
Si Si Si
❑ In intrinsic semiconductors, Electron concentration and Hole concentration are equal.
▪ n = p = 𝐧𝐢
▪ For Si, 𝐧𝐢 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 /𝐜𝐦𝟑
▪ For Ge, 𝐧𝐢 = 𝟐. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 /𝐜𝐦𝟑

a
❑ For semiconductor material, Rate of generation G is equal to Rate of Recombination R.
d
n
▪ G=R

F u
i n g
er
in e
n g
E
 Examples on Semiconductor Material
Question 1 – The Bandgap of Silicon at 300K is {GATE 2003}
a. 1.36 eV
b. 1.10 eV
c. 0.80 eV
d. 0.67 eV

Question 2 – The Bandgap of Silicon at room temperature is {GATE 2005}

a. 1.3 eV
b. 0.7 eV
c. 1.1 eV
d. 1.4 eV
Question 3 – A small percentage of impurity is added to an intrinsic semiconductor at 300K.
Which one of the following statements is true for the energy band diagram shown in the
following figure? {GATE 2016}
a. Intrinsic semiconductor doped with pentavalent atoms to form n – type semiconductor.

d a
b. Intrinsic semiconductor doped with trivalent atoms to form n – type semiconductor.

n
c. Intrinsic semiconductor doped with pentavalent atoms to form p – type semiconductor.

F u
d. Intrinsic semiconductor doped with trivalent atoms to form p – type semiconductor.
Conduction Band

i n g
r
Ec
New Energy Level 0.01eV

ee
g in
E n
Valence Band
Ev
Question 4 – N – Type silicon is obtained by doping silicon with {GATE 2003}
a. Germanium
b. Aluminum
c. Boron
d. Phosphorus
d a
u n
F
Question 5 – In an n – type silicon crystal at room temperature, which of the following can

g
have a concentration of 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝐜𝐦−𝟑 {GATE 2009}
a. Silicon Atoms
r i n
e
b. Holes
c. Dopant atoms
in e
g
d. Valence electrons

E n
Question 6 – A bar of Gallium Arsenide GaAs is doped with Silicon such that the silicon
atoms occupy Gallium and Arsenic sites in the GaAs crystal. Which one of the following
statements is true? {GATE 2017}
a. Silicon atoms act as p-type dopants in Arsenic sites and n-type dopants in Gallium sites

d a
b. Silicon atoms act as n-type dopants in Arsenic sites and p-type dopants in Gallium sites

n
c. Silicon atoms act as p-type dopants in Arsenic as well as Gallium sites

F u
d. Silicon atoms act as n-type dopants in Arsenic as well as Gallium sites

i n g
er
in e
n g
E
Question 7 – The intrinsic carrier concentration of silicon sample at 300K is 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 /𝐦𝟑 .
If after doping, the number of majority carriers is 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎 /𝐦𝟑 , the minority carrier density
is {GATE 2018}
a. 𝟒. 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 /𝐦𝟑
b. 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 /𝐦𝟑
d a
c. 𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎 /𝐦𝟑
u n
F
d. 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 /𝐦𝟑

i n g
er
in e
n g
E
Question 8 – The concentration of minority carriers in an extrinsic semiconductor under
equilibrium is : {GATE 2015}
a. Directly proportional to the doping concentration
b. Inversely proportional to the doping concentration
c. Directly proportional to the Intrinsic concentration
d a
n
d. Inversely proportional to the Intrinsic concentration

F u
i n g
er
in e
n g
E
Question 9 – The electron and hole concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor are 𝐧𝐢 per
𝐜𝐦𝟑 at 300K. Now, if acceptor impurities are introduced with a concentration of Na per 𝐜𝐦𝟑
(where Na >> 𝐧𝐢 ), the electron concentration per 𝐜𝐦𝟑 at 300K will be: {GATE 2007}
a. 𝐧𝐢
b. 𝐧𝐢 + Na
d a
c. Na − 𝐧𝐢
u n
F
d. 𝐧𝐢 𝟐 /Na

i n g
er
in e
n g
E
Question 10 – A silicon bar is doped with donor impurities 𝐍𝐃 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬/𝐜𝐦𝟑 .
Given the intrinsic concentration of silicon at T = 300K is 𝐧𝐢 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 /𝐜𝐦𝟑 . Assuming
complete impurity ionization, the equilibrium electron and hole concentrations are : {GATE
2014}
a. 𝐧𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝐜𝐦−𝟑 , 𝐩𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐜𝐦−𝟑
d a
b. 𝐧𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝐜𝐦−𝟑 , 𝐩𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝐜𝐦−𝟑
u n
F
c. 𝐧𝟎 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝐜𝐦−𝟑 , 𝐩𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝐜𝐦−𝟑
d. 𝐧𝟎 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝐜𝐦−𝟑 , 𝐩𝟎 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐜𝐦−𝟑

i n g
er
in e
n g
E
Examples of Drift Current & Drift Velocity
Question 1 – Drift current in the semiconductors depends upon {GATE 2011}
a. Only the electric field
b. Only the carrier concentration gradient
d a
n
c. Both the electric field and the carrier concentration

F u
d. Both the electric field and the carrier concentration gradient

i n g
er
in e
n g
E
Question 2 – A DC voltage of 10V is applied across as n-type silicon bar having a rectangular
cross section and a length of 1cm as shown in figure. The donor doping concentration 𝐍𝐃
and the mobility of electrons 𝛍𝐧 are 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 /𝐜𝐦𝟑 and 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐦𝟐 /𝐕𝐬𝐞𝐜, respectively. The
average time (in µsec) taken by the electrons to move from one end of the bar to other end

a
is …………………. {GATE 2015}

n d
u
10V

g F
n-Si
r i n
e e
in
1cm

n g
E
Question 3 – The silicon sample with unit cross-sectional area shown below is in thermal
equilibrium. The following information is given: T = 300K, electron charge = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐂,
Thermal voltage = 26mV and electron mobility = 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎 𝐜𝐦𝟐 /𝐕𝐬𝐞𝐜. {GATE 2010}
1V

d a
u n
F
𝑵𝑫 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 /𝒄𝒎𝟑

X=0 X=1µm

i n g
er
The magnitude of the electric field at x = 0.5µm is
a. 1KV/cm c. 10KV/cm
in e
g
b. 5KV/cm d. 26KV/cm

E n
The magnitude of the electron drift current density at x = 0.5µm is
a. 𝟐. 𝟏𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝐀/𝐜𝐦𝟐 c. 𝟏. 𝟎𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝐀/𝐜𝐦𝟐
b. 4. 𝟑𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐀/𝐜𝐦𝟐 d. 6. 𝟒𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝐀/𝐜𝐦𝟐
Question 4 – The dependence of drift velocity of electrons on electric field in a
semiconductor is shown below. The semiconductor has uniform electron concentration of
𝐧 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝐜𝐦−𝟑 and electron charge 𝐪 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐂. If a bias of 5V is applied across
a 1µm region of this semiconductor, the resulting current density in this region, in 𝐊𝐀/𝐜𝐦𝟐 ,
is …………………… {GATE 2017}

d a
Drift velocity cm/sec

u n
𝟏𝟎 𝟕

g F
r i n
Electric Field V/cm

ee
𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓

g in
E n
Examples of Resistivity and Conductivity
Question 1 – An n-type silicon bar 0.1cm long and 100 𝛍𝐦𝟐 in cross-sectional area has a
majority carrier concentration of 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎 /𝐦𝟑 and the carrier mobility is 0.13 𝐦𝟐 /𝐕𝐬𝐞𝐜 at

a
300K. If the charge of an electron is 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 C, then the resistance of bar is: {GATE 2003}
d
n
a. 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝐨𝐡𝐦
b. 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝐨𝐡𝐦
F u
g
c. 𝟏𝟎−𝟏 𝐨𝐡𝐦
d. 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐨𝐡𝐦
r i n
e e
g in
E n
Question 2 – A Silicon sample is uniformly doped with donor type impurities with a
concentration of 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 /𝐜𝐦𝟑 . The electron and hole mobilities in the sample are 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐦𝟐 /𝐕𝐬𝐞𝐜
and 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐦𝟐 /𝐕𝐬𝐞𝐜, respectively. Assume complete ionization of impurities. The charge of an
electron is 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐂. The resistivity of the sample (in 𝛀𝐜𝐦) is …………………… {GATE 2015}

d a
u n
g F
r i n
e e
g in
E n
Question 3 – The resistivity of a uniformly doped n-type silicon sample is 0.5 ohm-cm. If the
electron mobility (𝛍𝐧 ) is 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎𝐜𝐦𝟐 /𝐕𝐬𝐞𝐜 and the charge of an electron is 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐂, the
donor impurity concentration (𝐍𝐃 ) in the sample is: {GATE 2014}
a. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 /𝐜𝐦𝟑
b. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 /𝐜𝐦𝟑
d a
n
c. 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 /𝐜𝐦𝟑
d. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 /𝐜𝐦𝟑
F u
i n g
er
in e
n g
E
Question 4 – A heavily doped n-type semiconductor has the following data:
Hole electron mobility ratio = 0.4
Doping concentration = 𝟒. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬/𝐦𝟑
intrinsic concentration = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬/𝐦𝟑

a
The ratio of conductance of the n type semiconductor to that of the intrinsic semiconductor
d
n
of same material and at the same temperature is given by: {GATE 2006}
a. 0.00005
F u
g
b. 2000
c. 10000
r i n
e
d. 20000

in e
n g
E
Question 5 – A piece of silicon is doped uniformly with phosphorous with a doping
concentration of 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 /𝐜𝐦𝟑 . The expected value of mobility versus doping concertation for
silicon assuming full dopant ionization is shown below. The charge of an electron is 𝟏. 𝟔 ×
𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐂. The conductivity (in 𝐒𝐜𝐦−𝟏 ) of the silicon sample at 300K is …………….: {GATE 2015}

d a
u n
g F
r i n
e e
g in
E n
Question 6 – A silicon sample A is doped with 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬/𝐜𝐦𝟑 of boron. Another sample
B of identical dimensions is doped with 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬/𝐜𝐦𝟑 of phosphorus. The ratio of
electron-to-hole mobility is 3. The ratio of conductivity of the sample A to B is: {GATE 2005}
a. 3
b. 1/3
d a
c. 2/3
u n
F
d. 3/2

i n g
er
in e
n g
E
 Einstein Relation in Semiconductor
❑ Basics of Einstein Relation in Semiconductor
▪ For semiconductor material, Einstein has explained the relationship in between
Diffusion coefficient (D) and Mobility (µ).
d a
u n
g F
r i n
e e
g in
E n
 Electrons

d a
N Type Semiconductor
u n
Charge Concentration

g F
r i n
e e
g in
Distance x

n
Energy

Conduction Band EEf

Ei

Valence Band
 Examples of Diffusion Current
Question 1 – The electron concentration in a sample of uniformly doped n-type silicon at
300K varies linearly from 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 /𝐜𝐦𝟑 at x = 0 to 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 /𝐜𝐦𝟑 at x = 2µm. Assume a situation

a
that electrons are supplied to keep this concentration gradient constant with time. If electron

n d
charge is 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐂 and the diffusion constant 𝐃𝐧 = 𝟑𝟓 𝐜𝐦𝟐 /𝐬, the current density in

F u
the silicon, if no electric field is present is: {GATE 2003}

g
a. 𝐙𝐞𝐫𝐨
b. −𝟏𝟏𝟐 𝐀/𝐜𝐦𝟐
r i n
e
c. +𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐀/𝐜𝐦𝟐
d. −𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐀/𝐜𝐦𝟐
in e
n g
E
Question 2 – Assume electronic charge 𝐪 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐂, kT/q = 25mV and electron mobility
𝛍𝐧 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐦𝟐 /𝐕𝐬𝐞𝐜. If the concentration gradient of electrons injected into a N-type silicon
sample is 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟏 /𝐜𝐦𝟒 , the magnitude of electron diffusion current density (in 𝐀/𝐜𝐦𝟐 ) is
…………………… {GATE 2014}

d a
u n
g F
r i n
e e
g in
E n
 Examples of Einstein Relation
Question 1 – At T = 300K, the hole mobility of a semiconductor 𝛍𝐏 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝐜𝐦𝟐 /𝐕𝐬𝐞𝐜 and
kT/q=26mV. The hole diffusion constant 𝐃𝐩 in 𝐜𝐦𝟐 /𝐬𝐞𝐜 is ……………… {GATE 2014}

d a
u n
g F
r i n
e e
g in
E n
Question 2 – The ratio of the mobility to the diffusion coefficient in a semiconductor has the
units: {GATE 2009}
a. 𝐕 −𝟏
b. 𝐜𝐦. 𝐕 −𝟏
c. 𝐕𝐜𝐦−𝟏
d a
d. V.Sec
u n
g F
r i n
e e
g in
E n
 Fermi Dirac Distribution Function
❑ Basics of Fermi Dirac Distribution Function
▪ The Fermi Dirac Distribution function, denoted as 𝐟(𝐄), it gives the probability of

d a
finding a particle (Electrons, Protons & Neutrons) with energy E in a particular energy
state at a given temperature T.
u n
∴ 𝐟(𝐄) =
𝟏

g F At 0K

i n
(𝑬−𝑬𝒇 )/𝒌𝑻
𝟏+𝒆

r
E At 300K

e
At 600K
▪ So, f(E) is ranging in between 0 to 1.

in e
n g
E
𝑬𝒇

F(E)
𝟎 𝟏
Energy

Si Si Si
Conduction Band

d a
n
Si Si Si
Ef

F u
g
Valence Band Si Si Si

r i n
ee
❑ If we increase the temperature, then the probability of finding an electron increases

g in
above Ef and the probability of finding an electron decreases below Ef.

n
❑ At Ef, the probability of finding electrons is Half.

E
Electron Concentration in Conduction Band
Energy

a
Si Si Si
Conduction Band

n d
Ef
F u Si Si Si

i n g
r
Si Si Si

e
Valence Band

in e
g
❑ Electron Concentration in Conduction Band is given by:
n
E
𝟑/𝟐
−(𝐄𝒄 −𝐄𝐟 )/𝐤𝐓
𝟐𝛑𝐤𝐓𝐦𝐧
∴ 𝐧 = 𝐍𝐜 𝐞 ∴ 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞, 𝐍𝐜 = 𝟐
𝐡𝟐
▪ 𝐦𝐧 is the rest mass of the electron.
▪ k is Boltzmann constant.
▪ T is the temperature in Kalvin.
 Holes Concentration in Valence Band
Energy

a
Si Si Si
Conduction Band

n d
Ef
Fu Si Si Si

i n g
r
Si Si Si

e
Valence Band

in e
g
❑ Holes Concentration in Valence Band is given by:
n
E
𝟑/𝟐
𝟐𝛑𝐤𝐓𝐦𝐩
−(𝐄𝐟 −𝐄𝐯 )/𝐤𝐓 ∴ 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞, 𝐍𝐯 = 𝟐
∴ 𝐩 = 𝐍𝐯 𝐞
𝐡𝟐
▪ 𝐦𝐩 is the effective mass of the hole.
▪ k is Boltzmann constant.
▪ T is the temperature in Kalvin.
 Intrinsic Concentration in Semiconductor
Energy

a
Si Si Si

n d
Conduction Band

u
Ec

F
Si Si Si
Ef

i n g
r
Ev
Si Si Si

e
Valence Band

in e
g
❑ Electrons Concentration in Conduction Band = n (/𝐜𝐦𝟑 )

E n
❑ Holes Concentration in Valence Band = p (/𝐜𝐦𝟑 )
❑ In intrinsic Semiconductor
▪ n = p = 𝐧𝐢
 d a
u n
g F
r i n
ee
gin
En
Comparison of Drift Velocity & Free Velocity

d a
u n
g F
r i n
ee
gin
E n
❑ If material of length L is given with voltage V, which results in drift velocity 𝐯𝐝 . If the
potential difference between plates is V with air in between and free velocity is 𝐯𝐟 . Now, if
potential V’ = V/2, find the new drift velocity & free velocity.

d a
u n
g F
r i n
e e
g in
E n
Fermi Energy Level in Intrinsic Semiconductor
❑ Derivation of Fermi Energy Level in Intrinsic Semiconductor

d a
u n
g F
r i n
e e
g in
E n
❑ Basics of Fermi Energy Level in Intrinsic Semiconductor
Energy

Conduction Band

d a
n
𝐄𝐜

u
𝐄𝐜 + 𝐄𝐯

g F𝟐

n
𝐄𝐯
Valence Band

er i
in e
g
𝐄𝐜 + 𝐄𝐯 𝐤𝐓 Nv

n
𝐄𝐢 = + ln
𝟐 𝟐 Nc

𝐄𝐢 =
𝐄𝐜 + 𝐄𝐯 𝟑𝐤𝐓
𝟐
+
𝟒
Eln
mp
mn
Fermi Energy Level in N-Type Semiconductor
❑ Derivation of Fermi Energy Level in N-Type Semiconductor

d a
u n
g F
r i n
e e
g in
E n
❑ Basics of Fermi Energy Level in N-Type Semiconductor
Energy

Conduction Band

d a
n
𝐄𝐜

u
𝐄𝑭

g F
n
𝐄𝐯
Valence Band

er i
in e
n g
E
Fermi Energy Level in P-Type Semiconductor
❑ Derivation of Fermi Energy Level in P-Type Semiconductor

d a
u n
g F
r i n
e e
g in
E n
❑ Basics of Fermi Energy Level in P-Type Semiconductor
Energy

Conduction Band

d a
n
𝐄𝐜

F u
g
𝐄𝑭

n
𝐄𝐯
Valence Band

er i
in e
n g
E
 Hall Effect for Conductor & Semiconductor
❑ Statement: When a current (I) carrying conductor is placed in a Magnetic field (B), an
Electric field E is induced in the direction perpendicular to I and B (Direction is as per

d
Flaming’s left hand rule), which results into hall voltage 𝐕𝐇 .
a
N Pole
u n
g F
- rin
e
e +
d
g i n
w
E n
S Pole
 d a
u n
g F
r i n
ee
gin
En
❑ Applications of Hall Effect
▪ Measurement of Carrier concentration.
▪ Measurement of Mobility of material.
▪ Magnetic field meter.

d a
u n
g F
r i n
e e
g in
E n
 Examples of Hall Effect
Question 1 – A strip of N-type Silicon experiences a hall voltage of 1.7µV at the spacing of
1cm due to a uniform magnetic field of 2T. Find

a
a. The Electric field due to the Hall effect
b. The Electric force due to the Hall effect on electrons.
n d
c. Drift velocity of the electron.
F u
i n g
er
in e
n g
E
Question 2 – The majority carriers in an n-type semiconductor have an average drift velocity v
in a direction perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B. The electric field E induced due to
hall effect acts in the direction: {GATE 2005}
a. v x B

a
b. B x v
c. Along v
n d
d. Opposite to v
F u
i n g
er
in e
n g
E
Question 3 – A Copper strip 2cm wide and 1mm thick is placed in a magnetic field with 𝐁 =
𝟏. 𝟓𝐖𝐛/𝐦𝟐 . If a current of 200A is set up in the strip, calculate the Hall voltage that appears
across strip. Assume 𝐑 𝐇 = 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐦𝟑 /𝐂.

d a
u n
g F
r i n
e e
g in
E n
Question 4 – An electric field of 100 V/m is applied to N-type semiconductor, whose Hall
coefficient is -0.0125 𝐦𝟑 /𝐂. Determine the current density. Assume 𝛍𝐧 = 𝟎. 𝟔 𝐦𝟑 /𝐕𝐬𝐞𝐜.

d a
u n
g F
r i n
e e
g in
E n
Question 5 – Find the Hall coefficient of sodium assuming bcc structure of cell side 4.28 𝐀𝟎 .

d a
u n
g F
r i n
e e
g in
E n
Energy & Wavelength for Generation & Recombination
Energy

a
Conduction Band

d
𝐄𝐜

u n
g F
n
𝐄𝐯

r i
Valence Band

ee
gin
E n
 Examples of Energy and Wavelength
Question 1 – The longest wavelength that can be absorbed by silicon, which has the bandgap
of 1.12eV, is 1.1µm. If the longest wavelength that can be absorbed by another material is

a
0.87µm, then the bandgap of this material is …………… {GATE 2004}
a. 1.416 eV
n d
b. 0.886 eV
F u
g
c. 0.854 eV

i n
d. 0.706 eV

er
in e
n g
E
Question 2 – The cut-off wavelength (in µm) of light that can be used for intrinsic excitation
of a semiconductor material of bandgap 𝐄𝐠 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝐞𝐕 is …………………….. {GATE 2014}

d a
u n
g F
r i n
e e
g in
E n
Question 3 – At T = 300K, the bandgap and the intrinsic carrier concentration of GaAs are
1.42eV and 𝟏𝟎𝟔 /𝒄𝒎𝟑 , respectively. In order to generate electron hole pairs in GaAs, which
one of the wavelength (λc) ranges of incident radiation, is most suitable? {GATE 2014}
a. 0.42µm < λc < 0.87µm

a
b. 0.87µm < λc < 1.42µm
c. 1.42µm < λc < 1.62µm
n d
d. 1.62µm < λc < 6.62µm
F u
i n g
er
in e
n g
E
Generation & Recombination using Uniform Illumination

a
N-Type

d
Si Si Si

Light

u n Free electron

F
Concentration Si P Si

i n g
er Si Si Si

in e
g
Time

E n
Examples of Generation & Recombination using Uniform Illumination
Question 1 – Consider a silicon sample at T = 300K, with a uniform donor density 𝐍𝐃 = 𝟓 ×
𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝐜𝐦−𝟑 illuminated uniformly such that the optical generation rate is 𝐆𝐨𝐩𝐭 = 𝟏. 𝟓 ×

a
𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎 𝐜𝐦−𝟑 𝐬 −𝟏 throughout the sample. The incident radiation is turned off at t=0. Assume
d
n
low level injection to be valid and ignore surface effects. The carrier lifetimes are 𝛕𝐩 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝛍𝐬

F u
and 𝛕𝐧 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝛍𝐬. The hole concentration at t=0 and at t=0.3µs, respectively are {GATE 2016}

g
a. 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑 𝐜𝐦−𝟑 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟕. 𝟒𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝐜𝐦−𝟑
b. 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑 𝐜𝐦−𝟑 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟖. 𝟐𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝐜𝐦−𝟑
r i n
e
N-Type
c. 7. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑 𝐜𝐦−𝟑 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟑. 𝟕𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝐜𝐦−𝟑

in e
d. 7. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑 𝐜𝐦−𝟑 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟒. 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝐜𝐦−𝟑 Light

n g
E
Question 2 – An n-types silicon sample is uniformly illuminated with light which generates
𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎 electron hole pairs per 𝐜𝐦𝟑 per second. The minority carrier lifetime in the sample is
1µs. In the steady state, the hole concentration in the sample is approximately 𝟏𝟎𝐱 , where x
is integer. The value of x is ………………………… {GATE 2015}

d a
u n
g F
r i n
e e
g in
E n
Question 3 – A thin p-type silicon sample is uniformly illuminated with light which generates
excess carriers. The recombination rate is directly proportional to : {GATE 2014}
a. The minority carrier mobility
b. The minority carrier recombination lifetime

a
c. The majority carrier concentration
d. The excess minority carrier concentration
n d
F u
i n g
er
in e
n g
E
 Examples of Energy band Diagram
Question 1 – An N-type semiconductor having uniform doping is biased as shown in the
figure. V

d a
N-Type

u n
g F
If Ec is the lowest energy level of the conduction band, Ev is the highest energy level of the

i n
valence band and Ef is the fermi level, which one of the following represents the energy band

er
diagram for the biased N-type semiconductor? {GATE 2014}
Ec

in e Ec

g
A. Ef C.

n
Ef

E
Ev Ev
Ec
Ef D. Ec
B.
Ef
Ev
Ev
Question 2 – The energy band diagram and electron density profile n(x) in a semiconductor
are shown in the figure. Assume that 𝐧 𝐱 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝐞𝐪𝛂𝐱/𝐤𝐓 𝐜𝐦−𝟑 , with α=0.1V/cm and x
expressed in cm. Given kT/q=26mV, 𝐃𝐧 = 𝟑𝟔𝐜𝐦𝟐 /𝐬, D/µ=kT/q. The electron current density
(in A/𝐜𝐦𝟐 ) at x=0 is ………………. {GATE 2015}
a. -0.044
d a
n
b. -0.022
c. 0
Fu
g
d. 0.022
E(eV)

r i
Log(n(x))
n
e e
in
Slope = -0.1eV/cm

n g
E
Ec

Ev

x=0 x x=0 x
Question 3 – Silicon is doped with boron to a concentration of 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬/𝐜𝐦𝟑 .
Assuming the intrinsic carrier concentration of silicon to be 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 /𝐜𝐦𝟑 and kT/q to be
25mV at 300K. Compared to un-doped silicon, the fermi level of doped silicon: {GATE 2008}
a. Goes down by 0.13eV
b. Goes up by 0.13eV

d a
n
c. Goes down by 0.427eV
d. Goes up by 0.427eV
F u
i n g
er
in e
n g
E
 Continuity Equation in Semiconductor
❑ Continuity Equation explains the function of charge carriers with respect to Space and Time.

d a
u n
g F
r i n
P-Type ∆x

e e
g in
E n
 d a
u n
g F
r i n
ee
gin
En
Direct Bandgap and Indirect Bandgap
Semiconductors
d a
n
E E

u
Conduction Conduction

F
Band Band

i n g
r
Energy Gap Energy Gap

e e
in
Valence Band Valence Band

n g
E
k k
Direct Bandgap Semiconductors Indirect Bandgap Semiconductors

Engineering Funda
 Direct Bandgap Semiconductor Indirect Bandgap Semiconductor
❖ The electron shifts from Ev to Ec or vice ❖ The electron shifts from Ev to Ec or vice
versa without changing its Momentum k versa with the changes in its Momentum k
or frequency. or frequency.
d a
n
❖ A direct recombination takes place with ❖ Due to a relative difference in the
u
F
the release of the energy equal to the momentum, 1st the momentum is

g
energy difference between the conserved by the release of energy and
recombining particles.
r i n
only after both the momenta align

e e themselves, a recombination occurs

in
accompanied by the release of energy.
❖ The probability of
n g a radiative ❖ The probability of a radiative
recombination is high.
E recombination is low.
❖ The efficiency factor is higher, so it is used ❖ The efficiency factor is lower.
in optical sources. Example: LED, LASER
etc.
❖ Example: GaAs ❖ Example: Si and Ge