Practical Research 1

JENNY CARLA D. ARABACA

Presenter
 REVIEW
Five Major Research Designs
1. Phenomenological Study
➢ It examines human experiences (lived
experiences) through the descriptions provided
by subjects or respondents.
➢ The goal of this study is to describe the
meaning that experiences hold for each subject.
 REVIEW
Five Major Research Designs
2. Ethnography
➢ This study analyzes a group of people to
understand better their culture.
➢ Key Informants are the key persons who
provide information for the study.
➢ The main purpose of this study is the
development of cultural theories.
 REVIEW
Five Major Research Designs
3. Historical Study
➢ Identification, location, evaluation, and
synthesis of data from past events.
➢ This is not only limited to obtaining data
from the past but also involves relating their
implications to the present and future time.
 REVIEW
Five Major Research Designs
4. Case Study
➢ This involves a comprehensive and extensive
examination of a particular individual, group, or
situation over a period of time.
 REVIEW
Five Major Research Designs
5. Grounded Theory Study
➢ The method involves comparing collected
units of data against one another until
categories, and hypothesis that state relations
between these categories and properties
emerge.
 REVIEW
RESEARCH DESIGNS: What design fits me?
a. Phenomenology d. Historical
b. Ethnographic e. Grounded Theory
c. Case Study

1. What were the roles of women in

the Katipunan?
 REVIEW
RESEARCH DESIGNS: What design fits me?
a. Phenomenology d. Historical
b. Ethnographic e. Grounded Theory
c. Case Study

2. What are the effects of cyber

bullying among victims?
 REVIEW
RESEARCH DESIGNS: What design fits me?
a. Phenomenology d. Historical
b. Ethnographic e. Grounded Theory
c. Case Study

3. What are the effects of having

absentee parents to students?
 REVIEW
RESEARCH DESIGNS: What design fits me?
a. Phenomenology d. Historical
b. Ethnographic e. Grounded Theory
c. Case Study

4. What coping mechanisms do

patients employ after major surgery?
 REVIEW
RESEARCH DESIGNS: What design fits me?
a. Phenomenology d. Historical
b. Ethnographic e. Grounded Theory
c. Case Study

5. What are the spending practices of

parents with children attending
college?
 REVIEW
RESEARCH DESIGNS: What design fits me?
a. Phenomenology d. Historical
b. Ethnographic e. Grounded Theory
c. Case Study
6. What are the reactions of parents
towards the new normal setting in
education during the pandemic?
 REVIEW
RESEARCH DESIGNS: What design fits me?
a. Phenomenology d. Historical
b. Ethnographic e. Grounded Theory
c. Case Study
7. What are the trainings of Aeta teachers from
Cantillejos, Zambales for the past ten years to
provide insights into the formulation of a teacher
education model for indigenous people?
 REVIEW
RESEARCH DESIGNS: What design fits me?
a. Phenomenology d. Historical
b. Ethnographic e. Grounded Theory
c. Case Study
8. What are the demographic profile and
migratory adaptations of squatter families
in Barangay Cutcut, Angeles City (Dela
Cruz, 1994)?
 REVIEW
RESEARCH DESIGNS: What design fits me?
a. Phenomenology d. Historical
b. Ethnographic e. Grounded Theory
c. Case Study
9. What were the experiences of Filipino
people during the declaration of Martial
Law in the time of Marcos’ rule?
 REVIEW
RESEARCH DESIGNS: What design fits me?
a. Phenomenology d. Historical
b. Ethnographic e. Grounded Theory
c. Case Study
10. How did the Reming survivors
recover from the physical devastation
and haunting memories brought about
by the typhoon?
Describing Sampling
Procedure and Sample
In qualitative research, these
things must be clear to the
researcher.
1. how much data he/she needs
2. how he/she will select the
sample and
3. how he/she will get
participants if human
participants are needed
Important Terminologies
History of Sampling
The beginning of sampling could be traced back to
the early political activities of the Americans, in 1920 when
Literary Digest did a pioneering survey about the
American citizens’ favorite among the 1920 presidential
candidates. This was the very first survey that served as
the impetus for the discovery by academic researchers of
other sampling strategies that they categorized into two
classes: probability sampling and non-probability
sampling. (Babbie 2013)
Advantages of Sampling
Brown (2006) summarizes the advantages of sampling in
the following points
a. Makes the research of any type and size manageable;
b. Significantly saves the cost of the research;
c. Results in more accurate research findings;
d. Provides an opportunity to process the information in a
more efficient way;
e. Accelerates the speed of primary data collection
(Dudovskiy, 2016)
Description of Sampling Procedure
Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling
Methods Methods
1. Simple Random Sampling 1. Convenience Sampling
2. Systematic Random 2. Purposive Sampling
Sampling 3. Quota Sampling
3. Stratified Random 4. Volunteer Sampling
Sampling
5. Snowball Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
Probability Sampling Methods
Probability sampling is a type of sampling in which all the
members of an entire population have a chance of being selected.
This is also called as scientific sampling, and is commonly used in
quantitative research.
Simple Random Sampling is a method of choosing samples
in which all the members of the population are given an equal
chance of being selected. It is an unbiased way of selection, as
samples are drawn by chance. There are various ways of obtaining
samples through simple random sampling (Treece & Treece, 1986).
These include the roulette wheel, fishbowl method, and the use of
table of random numbers.
Probability Sampling Methods
Simple Random Sampling
Example: Observe the following steps using the fishbowl method:
i. The sampling frame, or a list of all the subjects or elements of
the population in question, should be prepared.
ii. All the names of the subjects or elements should be written
down on strips of paper (one name per strip of paper).
iii. The strips of paper with the listed names are then placed in a
bowl or container.
iv. Samples can be drawn as desired.
Probability Sampling Methods
Systematic Random Sampling is a method of selecting
every nth element of a population, e.g., every fifth, eighth,
ninth, or eleventh element until the desired sample size is
reached.
Example: If you want to have a sample of 150, you may
select a set of numbers like 1 to 15, and out of a list of
1,500 students, take every 15th name on the list until you
complete the total number of respondents to constitute
your sample.
Probability Sampling Methods
Stratified Random Sampling is a method where the
population is divided into different strata (groups), and
then the sampling follows. Age, gender, and educational
qualifications are some possible criteria used to divide a
population into strata.
Example: A researcher will study the common effects of
smoking on high school students. The researcher decides
to select equal numbers of students from the freshman,
sophomore, junior, and senior levels.
Probability Sampling Methods
Cluster Sampling is used in large-scale studies. Clusters are
representative samples of the population as a whole. After the
clusters are established, a simple random sample of the clusters is
drawn and the members of the chosen clusters are sampled.
Sampling procedures are difficult and time-consuming.
Example: A researcher wants to interview 100 teachers across the
country. It will be difficult and expensive on their part to have
respondents in 100 different cities or provinces. Cluster sampling is
helpful for the researcher who randomly selects the regions (first
cluster), then selects the schools (second cluster), and then the
number of teachers.
Non-probability Sampling Methods
Non-Probability Sampling disregards random
selection of subjects. The subjects are chosen based on
their availability or the purpose of the study, and in some
cases, on the sole discretion of the researcher. This is not a
scientific way of selecting respondents, and is commonly
used in qualitative research.
Convenience Sampling involves choosing
respondents at the convenience of the researcher. It is also
called accidental or incidental sampling.
Non-probability Sampling Methods
Convenience Sampling

Example: A researcher intends to study the

elementary students of a particular school and has
determined the desired sample size. Due to the
study’s constraints, the elementary pupils who are
present at the time of the researcher’s visit to the
school will be chosen as respondents.
Non-probability Sampling Methods
Purposive Sampling involves handpicking subjects,
usually to suit very specific intentions. This is also
called judgmental sampling.

Example: In a study about honor students, the

researcher uses a list of honor students and
chooses the necessary number of respondents, to
the exclusion of all other students.
Non-probability Sampling Methods
Quota Sampling is somewhat similar to stratified sampling, in that the
population is divided into strata, and the researcher deliberately sets
specific proportions in the sample, whether or not the resulting
proportion is reflective of the total population. This is commonly done
to the ensure the inclusion of a particular segment of the population.
Example: A researcher wants to survey the employees of a company
regarding their thoughts on the company’s new policies. The researcher
intends to have representatives from all departments in his sample, but
one department is so small that doing random sampling might result in
that department not being represented. The researcher then sets a
quota of respondents from that department to ensure their inclusion in
the sample.
Non-probability Sampling Methods
Volunteer Sampling involves people who self-select into
the survey. Often, these folks have a strong interest in the
main topic of the survey.

Example: A noontime show like ‘It’s Showtime asks viewers

to participate in an online poll, or to vote for the winner in
“Tawag ng Tanghalan.” This would be a volunteer sample
since the sample is chosen by the viewers, not by the
survey administrator.
Non-probability Sampling Methods
Snowball Sampling does not give a specific set of samples,
similar to snow expanding widely or rolling rapidly. This is
true for a study involving unspecified group of people.
Dealing with varied groups of people such as street children,
drug dependents, gang members, informal settlers, street
vendors, and the like is possible in this kind of non-
probability sampling.
A snowball sample is achieved by asking a participant to
suggest someone else who might be willing or appropriate
for the study.
Strategies to Obtain a Quality Sample
1. Focus on the study - Make certain that the research question is
feasible and the study answers a question with clear variables.
2. Find a representative sample - Determine the necessary
addition and omission criteria for the study population such
that findings cane exactly generalize or identify results to the
target group.
3. Determine a recruitment strategy - Spell out a plan to identify
and enroll study participants. This may entail screening or
establishing criteria fro number, location, and sampling
method.
Strategies to Obtain a Quality Sample
4. Consult with the community to identify and recruit potential
participants - Study existing infrastructure to discover venues of
contacting suitable samples. Researchers must also be
considerate and receptive to the recommendation of local experts
and leaders.
5. Avoid selection bias - It is also essential to recruit a fitting
comparison group.
6. Do not give up after the first attempt to recruit a potential
participant - Follow-up using various communication strategies,
including personal, written, or electronic messaging. The
importance of personal contact should not be undervalued.
Strategies to Obtain a Quality Sample
7. Allow flexibility in the process - If existing recruitment
strategies are resulting to inadequate enrollment of
participants or modifications are made in criteria of
participants, the solution may be to change the
sampling plan.
Strategies to Obtain a Quality Sample
7. Allow flexibility in the process - If existing recruitment
strategies are resulting to inadequate enrollment of
participants or modifications are made in criteria of
participants, the solution may be to change the
sampling plan.
PRACTICE TASK
a. Probability e. 30 i. Non-probability
b. Quota f. Cluster j. 1920 Literary
c. Systematic g. Simple random Digest
d. Respondents h. Population k. Convenience

1. A group of entrepreneurs is asked

to fill out a survey
PRACTICE TASK
a. Probability e. 30 i. Non-probability
b. Quota f. Cluster j. 1920 Literary
c. Systematic g. Simple random Digest
d. Respondents h. Population k. Convenience

2. A sampling method where all members

of the population are given equal chances
to be included in the sample.
PRACTICE TASK
a. Probability e. 30 i. Non-probability
b. Quota f. Cluster j. 1920 Literary
c. Systematic g. Simple random Digest
d. Respondents h. Population k. Convenience

3. This number of elements generally

forms an adequate sample
PRACTICE TASK
a. Probability e. 30 i. Non-probability
b. Quota f. Cluster j. 1920 Literary
c. Systematic g. Simple random Digest
d. Respondents h. Population k. Convenience

4. A sampling method which uses

every nth element of the population
PRACTICE TASK
a. Probability e. 30 i. Non-probability
b. Quota f. Cluster j. 1920 Literary
c. Systematic g. Simple random Digest
d. Respondents h. Population k. Convenience

5. Every person who enters the

gate is included in the sample
PRACTICE TASK
a. Probability e. 30 i. Non-probability
b. Quota f. Cluster j. 1920 Literary
c. Systematic g. Simple random Digest
d. Respondents h. Population k. Convenience

6. Intentional choosing of
sample
PRACTICE TASK
a. Probability e. 30 i. Non-probability
b. Quota f. Cluster j. 1920 Literary
c. Systematic g. Simple random Digest
d. Respondents h. Population k. Convenience

7. Origin of sampling
PRACTICE TASK
a. Probability e. 30 i. Non-probability
b. Quota f. Cluster j. 1920 Literary
c. Systematic g. Simple random Digest
d. Respondents h. Population k. Convenience

8. The researcher made sure to include 15

honor students in his sample of 100
students
PRACTICE TASK
a. Probability e. 30 i. Non-probability
b. Quota f. Cluster j. 1920 Literary
c. Systematic g. Simple random Digest
d. Respondents h. Population k. Convenience

9. Names are put into a bowl, and the and

the researcher draws them at random to
generate a sample
PRACTICE TASK
a. Probability e. 30 i. Non-probability
b. Quota f. Cluster j. 1920 Literary
c. Systematic g. Simple random Digest
d. Respondents h. Population k. Convenience

10. Group by group selection

PRACTICE TASK
What to do: Write P if the sentence talks about probability
sampling; otherwise, write NP. Write your answers on your
notebook.
1. Checking every 10th student in the list
2. Interviewing some persons you meet on the campus
3. Dividing 100 persons into groups
4. Choosing subjects behaving like the majority
members
5. Choosing a group of subjects among several groups
PRACTICE TASK
What to do: Write P if the sentence talks about probability
sampling; otherwise, write NP. Write your answers on your
notebook.
6. Choosing subjects capable of helping you meet the aim of your
study
7. Choosing samples by chance but through an organizational
pattern
8. Letting all members in the population join the selection process
9. Having people willing to be chosen as respondents
10.Matching people’s traits with the population members’ traits.
 Gathering Data Through
Appropriate Instrument and
Analytic Designs
(Plans Data Collection, Data
Gathering Instrument, and
Analysis Procedures)
After the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Distinguish the types of data
collection, data gathering instruments
and data analysis procedures.
2. Plan data collection, data gathering
instruments and data analysis
 Types of Data Collection
✓ Primary Data Collection is the gathering of raw data collected
at the source. It is a process of collecting the original data
collected by a researcher for a specific research purpose. It could
be further analyzed into two segments; qualitative research and
quantitative data collection methods.
✓ Secondary Data Collection is referred to as the gathering of
second-hand data collected by an individual who is not the
original user. It is the process of collecting data that is already
existing, be it already published books, journals and/or online
portals. In terms of ease, it is much less expensive and easier to
collect.
 Types of Data Collection
Determine whether the following situations describe Primary Data Collection or
Secondary Data Collection.
1. Marissa went to Barangay Malusog to interview her students about their
cultural practices learned from their ancestors.
2. Arnold read blogs and journal on the internet related to his research
problem.
3. He prepared questionnaires and distributed them to his target respondents.
4. Loraine watched the interview of Pres. Duterte as it is the subject of her
research.
5. As part of her research problem, Loreto stayed for a month in Barrio Makisig
to observe the ways the locals celebrate special occasions.
 Qualitative Research Method
This is based on the non-quantifiable elements
like the feeling or emotion of the researcher. An
example of such a method is an open-ended
questionnaire.
The qualitative research methods of data
collection does not involve the collection of data that
involves numbers or a need to be deduced through a
mathematical calculation.
 Qualitative Research Method
• Experiments
• Surveys (sample surveys or census surveys)
• Interview is a data collection strategy in which participants are
asked to talk about the area under consideration.
Steps For An Effective Interview
-Prepare interview schedule
-Select subjects/ key Respondant
-Conduct the interview
-Analyze and interpret data collected from the interview
 Qualitative Research Method
• Interview
Classifications
A. Structured Interviews : In this case, a set of pre-decided questions
are there.
B. Unstructured Interviews :In this case, we don’t follow a system of
pre determined questions.
C. Focused Interviews :Attention is focused on the given experience of
the respondent and its possible effects.
D. Clinical Interviews : Concerned with broad underlying feelings or
motivations or with the course of an individual’s life experience.
 Qualitative Research Method
• Interview
Classifications
E. Group Interviews :a group of 6 to 8 individuals is interviewed.
F. Qualitative and quantitative Interviews :divided on the basis of
subject matter i.e., whether qualitative or quantitative.
G. Individual Interviews : Interviewer meets a single person and
interviews him.
H. Selection Interviews : Done for selection of people for certain Jobs.
 Qualitative Research Method
• Observation is a method under which data from the field is collected with
the help of observation by the observer or by personally going to the field. In
the words of P.V Young “Observation may be defined as systematic viewing,
coupled with consideration of seen phenomenon.”
Steps for an Effective Observation
• Determine what needs to be observed
• Select participants
• Random/Selected
• Conduct the observation (venue, duration, recording materials, take
photographs)
• Compile data collected
• Analyze and interpret data collected
 Qualitative Research Method
• Observation
Classifications
A. Structured Observation. When the observation is characterized by a careful
definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording the observed
information, standardized conditions of observation and the selection of
related data of observation.
B. Unstructured Observation. When it takes place without the above
characteristics.
C. Participant Observation happens when the observer is member of the group
which he is observing.
D. Non-Participant Observation occurs when observer is observing people
without giving any information to them.
 Qualitative Research Method
• Questionnaire is predefined set of questions, assembled in a
pre-determined order. It is handy when the researcher is
trying to collect information from large numbers of people.
Steps For An Effective Questionnaire
-Prepare questions (Formulate & choose types of questions,
order them, write instructions, make copies)
-Select your respondents (Random/Selected)
-Administer the questionnaire(date, venue, time )
-Tabulate data collected • Analyze and interpret data
collected
 Qualitative Research Method
• Questionnaire
Classifications
A. Open-ended questions give the respondents the ability to
respond in their own words.
B. Close-ended or fixed alternative questions allow the
respondents to choose one of the given alternatives.
.Types:- Dichotomous questions and Multiple Questions.
 Qualitative Research Method
• Schedules are very similar to Questionnaire method. The main
difference is that a schedule is filled by the enumerator who is
specially appointed for the purpose. Here the enumerator goes to
the respondents, asks them the questions from the Questionnaire in
the order listed, and records the responses in the space provided. It
is a must that the enumerator must be trained in administering the
schedule.
Now after gathering the data needed using the different research
instruments, data analysis comes next. It is the process of evaluating
data using the logical and analytical reasoning to carefully examine each
component of the data collected or provided. Also it is one of the many
steps that are taken when a research experiment is conducted.
Qualitative Research Method
• Experiments
• Surveys
• Interviews
• Observation
• Questionnaire
• Schedules
Qualitative Data Analysis
The data obtained through this method
consists of words, pictures, symbols and
observations. This type of analysis refers to the
procedures and processes that are utilized for the
analysis of data to provide some level of
understanding, explanation or interpretation.
Unlike the quantitative analysis, no statistical
approaches are used to collect and analyze this
data.
 Qualitative Data Analysis
Qualitative data refers to non-numeric information such as interview
transcripts, notes, video and audio recordings, images and text
documents. Qualitative data analysis can be divided into the
following five categories:
1. Content analysis. This refers to the process of categorizing verbal
or behavioural data to classify, summarize and tabulate the data.
2. Narrative analysis. This method involves the reformulation of
stories presented by respondents taking into account context of
each case and different experiences of each respondent. In other
words, narrative analysis is the revision of primary qualitative data
by researcher.
 Qualitative Data Analysis
3. Discourse analysis. A method of analysis of naturally occurring
talk and all types of written text.
4. Framework analysis. This is more advanced method that consists
of several stages such as familiarization, identifying a thematic
framework, coding, charting, mapping and interpretation.
5. Grounded theory. This method of qualitative data analysis starts
with an analysis of a single case to formulate a theory. Then,
additional cases are examined to see if they contribute to the
theory.
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
• A method is a technique which the researcher uses
to gather and generate data about the subject of
study.
• A methodology is the section of the research paper
which explains why the researcher chose to use
particular methods. The methodology also includes
descriptions of any and all theoretical and/or
ideological concepts informing and influencing the
course of the study, and the researcher’s rationale
behind adhering to these concepts.
• A research design is a plan which structures a study
to ensure that the data collected and generated will
contain the information needed to answer the initial
inquiry as fully and clearly as possible.
 Research Methodology
A Research Methodology is a description of how exactly you
conducted your research. You should provide detailed information
on the research design, participants, equipment, materials, variables,
and actions taken by the participants. The method section should
provide enough information to allow other researchers to replicate
your experiment or study. (Cherry, 2017)
This part is critical because it allows other researchers to see
exactly how you conducted your research. The research
methodology should allow other researchers to reproduce your
experiment if they want and to assess alternative methods that
might produce differing results. (Cherry, 2017)
 Research Methodology
The methods section typically consists of:

PARTICIPANTS
1. Population and Sampling
2. Locale of the Study
3. Participants of the Study
MATERIALS/INSTRUMENT
1. Research Tool or Instrument
 Research Methodology
The methods section typically consists of:

DESIGN AND PROCEDURE

1. Research Design
2. Data Gathering Procedure
3. Data Analysis
4. Statistical Treatment
 Research Methodology
Describe what you did and how you did it. The interested
reader should be able to repeat the study from the account
provided. (“APA style: Method,” 2017)
Be concise, precise, and logical in your writing.
Use the past tense in writing the methods section.
Provide enough detail to enable the reader to make an
informed assessment of the methods used in obtaining the results in
relation to the research problem.
“Insufficient detail leaves the reader with questions; too much
detail burdens the reader with irrelevant information.” (“APA Method
Section,” 2017)
 Research Methodology
STEP ONE: Participants
The Participant section tells the reader a
minimum of three pieces of information:
1. who was in your study;
2. the population used;
3. any restrictions on the nature of your participant
pool. (“APA Method Section,” 2017)
 Research Methodology
You must give the following information in your Participants
section: 1. the total number of participants and the number
assigned to each experimental condition
2. the major demographic characteristics of the participants
(such as age, etc.)
3. You must report the way the participants were selected.
Were they randomly selected from the whole population
or only from volunteers?
Were they not randomly selected but only volunteers?
Were they offered money or course credit to volunteer?
 Research Methodology
4. You must indicate if your participants are not representative of the
general population and if the selection process was restricted in any
way.
Did the study use only psych majors, only women, only deaf?
Did the study eliminate any people with vision problems,
color-blindness, hearing problems, etc.?
You must indicate how the participants were assigned.
Were they all assigned to the same group or to different
groups?
5. If they went to different groups, were they randomly assigned?
(“APA Method Section,” 2017)
 Research Methodology
STEP TWO: Materials or Apparatus
The Materials or Apparatus section tells the reader
what equipment and tools you used to run your experiment
and to acquire data. Sometimes it is not clear whether
something is an apparatus or a material. It is traditional to
label the section “Apparatus” if you are mostly describing
mechanical devices; to label it “Materials” is you are
describing mostly paper and pencil type items, and to label
it “Apparatus and Materials” is you are describing both.
(“APA Method Section,” 2017)
 Research Methodology
The rules for writing this subsection are as follows:
1. Standard equipment (such as screens, timers,
keyboards, etc.) can be mentioned just by name
and without detail.
2. Specialized equipment should give name, model
number, and supplier name and location.
3. Complex equipment is named and then the reader
is referred to the Appendix for illustrations and
greater detail.
 Research Methodology
4. Custom equipment is named and labeled as
custom equipment. Then the reader is referred to the
Appendix for illustrations and greater detail.
5. In your descriptions of the apparatus and
materials, do NOT tell in detail how you will use
them. (“APA Method Section,” 2017)
How apparatus and materials are used belongs in the
Procedure section.
 Research Methodology
STEP THREE: Design & Procedure
Describe the type of design used in the research.
Specify the variables as well as the levels of these variables.
(Cherry, 2017; “APA Method Section,” 2017) This subsection
gives the reader a summary of each step in the execution of
the research. This summary must be concise, precise, and
logical. Do not burden the reader with too much detail but
give enough so the reader can follow what is being done.
(“APA Method Section,” 2017)
 Research Methodology
The methods section typically consists of:
Research Design
 Research Methodology
The methods section typically consists of:
Population and Sampling
 Research Methodology
The methods section typically consists of:
Locale of the Study
 Research Methodology
The methods section typically consists of:
Participants of the Study
 Research Methodology
The methods section typically consists of:
Research Instrument
 Research Methodology
The methods section typically consists of:
Data Gathering Procedure
 Research Methodology
The methods section typically consists of:
Data Gathering Procedure
 Research Methodology
The methods section typically consists of:
Data Gathering Procedure
 Research Methodology
The methods section typically consists of:
Data Analysis
 Research Methodology
The methods section typically consists of:
Statistical Treatment
 HOME-BASED LEARNING
TASK 1: Accomplish in 1 whole tablet paper
 HOME-BASED LEARNING
TASK 2: Accomplish in 1 whole tablet paper
 HOME-BASED LEARNING
TASK 2: Accomplish in 1 whole tablet paper
 HOME-BASED LEARNING
TASK 2: Accomplish in 1 whole tablet paper
 HOME-BASED LEARNING
TASK 2: Accomplish in 1 whole tablet paper
 HOME-BASED LEARNING
TASK 2: Accomplish in 1 whole tablet paper
Questions:
1. What data needs to be gathered? Why do
you think so?
2. What research instrument is applicable to
this certain type of topic? Justify why.
3. What type of data analysis would you
employ? Explain.
 HOME-BASED LEARNING
TASK 3: Accomplish in 1 whole tablet paper
or encoded
BY GROUP
1. Craft your research instrument based on
your SOP.
2. Draft the Chapter III Methodology of your
paper including all the pertinent subparts.
 Enriching Data
Through
Observation and
Interviews
After going through
this lesson, you should be
able to collect data through
observation and interviews.
 Methods of Data Collection in
Qualitative Research
Observation is a preferred tool for collecting data where
the use of interviews and questionnaires are not possible,
such as when the study participants are very young children
and those with disabilities.
When using the observation method, you use senses to
observe and study people in their natural settings. It involves
observing behavior and recording the results of your
observations using the following systematic guidelines:
 Methods of Data Collection in
Qualitative Research
1. Observations should be certain and carefully planned. Pre-
planned research questions serve as guide throughout the
process.
2. An observation checklist should be prepared prior to the
observation process. This shall be used for recording
observations. A video recording may also be used when
observing behavioral data that you want to measure or collect.
3. Both qualitative and quantitative research methods may be used
for data analysis.
 Methods of Data Collection in
Qualitative Research
Observation can be used within any research strategy.
Observations can take various shapes and use different senses and/or
equipment.
In covert research, the fact that they are observed is not known to the
participants.
In overt research, the participants are informed about the observation
taking place.
A. Participant observation
B. Systematic or Direct observation
Methods of Data Collection in
Qualitative Research
Methods of Data Collection in
Qualitative Research
 Methods of Data Collection in
Qualitative Research
An interview is a personal conversation between two or
more people which constitute the target population for the
purpose of collecting information for a research project. Interviews
are used to explore the opinions, beliefs, viewpoints, thoughts,
experiences and judgements about something. The interview
method is preferred by researchers on qualitative research
projects due to its high response rate, longer time and
opportunity to view behaviors and listen to personal views and
perceptions about a research topic or interest.
Methods of Data Collection in
Qualitative Research
Methods of Data Collection in
Qualitative Research
Methods of Data Collection in
Qualitative Research
Methods of Data Collection in
Qualitative Research
Methods of Data Collection in
Qualitative Research
Methods of Data Collection in
Qualitative Research
 QUESTIONS TO PONDER
1. Why is it necessary to use the right method or
instrument for a particular task?
2. In a research study, why do you think there is a
need for the use of specific research tools?
3. What can happen if a researcher’s methods
and instruments are not prepared
meticulously?
 Infers and Explains
Patterns and Themes
from Data
After going through this
lesson, you will learn how to
explain what inferring is
,distinguish patterns from
themes and delve into
different strategies in
inferring and explaining data.
VOCABULARY BUILDER
 INITIAL TASK
1. Mayari was walking home from school. When she saw
that the skies were getting grey, she started to run to
their house. Why do you think Mayari started to run to
their house when the skies were getting grey?
2. Hiraya kept on playing games on her phone until
midnight. When she woke up, it was already 7:00a.m and
school is around 20 minutes away from her house. What
do you think will happen to Hiraya?
 WHAT IS INFERRING
Inferring is the process of deriving to an idea or a
conclusion based on preceding facts or data.
Inferencing is using observation and background to
reach a logical conclusion. It is very important for
research data analysis since you, as proponents, will
interpret data and give your inferences and
explanation depending on the patterns and themes of
the data you gathered.
 WHAT IS INFERRING
Let’s have another example. Suppose your research
paper is efficiency of Facebook as a platform for online
classes. Your respondents are senior high school
students between the ages of 15-19 and most
answered that Facebook is more effective than other
social media platforms in terms of online classes. What
will be your inference?
 WHAT IS INFERRING
Let’s have another example. Suppose your research
paper is efficiency of Facebook as a platform for online
classes. Your respondents are senior high school students
between the ages of 15-19 and most answered that Facebook
is more effective than other social media platforms in terms of
online classes. What will be your inference?
For you to be able to infer and explain data, there must
be patterns and themes that occur in the information that
you gathered.
 PATTERNS AND THEMES
When we speak of patterns, these are repeated
sequences or designs. They may also be repeated actions that
are done regularly, hence becoming patterns. Whereas, a
theme is generated when similar issues and ideas expressed
by participants within qualitative data are brought together by
the researcher into a single category or cluster. - This ‘theme’
may be labeled by a word or expression taken directly from
the data or by one created by the researcher because it seems
to best characterize the essence of what is being said.
 Strategies to Infer and Explain Data
In qualitative research, there are two ways to infer and explain
data. These are Thematic Analysis and Qualitative Data Analysis
(QDA). Thematic Analysis is a widely used method of analysis in
qualitative research. Braun and Clarke (2006) stated that thematic
analysis is a foundational method of analysis that needed to be defined
and described to solidify its place in qualitative research. It is a step-by-
step process which were then identified by Braun and Clarke. These
steps are the following:
1. Familiarization with the data: This phase involves reading and re-
reading the data, to become immersed and intimately familiar with its
content.
 Strategies to Infer and Explain Data
2. Coding: This phase involves generating succinct labels (codes!)
that identify important features of the data that might be relevant to
answering the research question. It involves coding the entire
dataset, and after that, collating all the codes and all relevant data
extracts, together for later stages of analysis.
3. Searching for themes: This phase involves examining the codes
and collated data to identify significant broader patterns of meaning
(potential themes). It then involves collating data relevant to each
candidate theme, so that you can work with the data and review the
viability of each candidate theme
 Strategies to Infer and Explain Data
4. Reviewing themes: This phase involves checking the candidate themes
against the dataset, to determine that they tell a convincing story of the
data, and one that answers the research question. In this phase, themes are
typically refined, which sometimes involves them being split, combined, or
discarded.
5. Defining and naming themes: This phase involves developing a detailed
analysis of each theme, working out the scope and focus of each theme,
determining the ‘story’ of each. It also involves deciding on an informative
name for each theme.
6. Writing up: This final phase involves weaving together the analytic
narrative and data extracts, and contextualizing the analysis in relation to
existing literature.
 Strategies to Infer and Explain Data
The ones which were mentioned were the strategies to infer and
explain patterns and themes from data. Let us now have the different
techniques to identify themes in qualitative data.
1. Word Repetitions - Word repetitions, key- indigenous terms, and
key-words in-contexts (KWIC) all draw on a simple observation—if you
want to understand what people are talking about, look at the words
they use. Word repetitions can be analyzed formally and informally. In
the informal mode, investigators simply read the text and note words
or synonyms that people use a lot. A more formal analysis of word
frequencies can be done by generating a list of all the unique words in
a text and counting the number of times each occurs.
 Strategies to Infer and Explain Data
2. Indigenous categories - Another way to find themes is to look for local
terms that may sound unfamiliar or are used in unfamiliar ways. Patton (1990)
refers to these as "indigenous categories" and contrasts them with "analyst-
constructed typologies." Grounded theorist refers to the process of identifying
local terms as in vivo coding (Strauss 1987, Strauss and Corbin 1990).
3. Key-words-in-context (KWIC) – These are closely associated with
indigenous categories. KWIC is based on a simple observation: if you want to
understand a concept, then look at how it is used. In this technique, researchers
identify key words and then systematically search the corpus of text to find all
instances of the word or phrase. Each time they find a word, they make a copy
of it and its immediate context. Themes get identified by physically sorting the
examples into piles of similar meaning.
 Strategies to Infer and Explain Data
4. Compare and Contrast - The compare and contrast approach is based on the
idea that themes represent the ways in which texts are either similar or different
from each other. Glazer and Strauss (1967) refer to this as the "constant
comparison method.”
5. Social Science Queries - Besides identifying indigenous themes— themes that
characterize the experience of informants— researchers are interested in
understanding how textual data illuminate questions of importance to social
science. Spradley (1979) suggested searching interviews for evidence of social
conflict, cultural contradictions, informal methods of social control, things that
people do in managing impersonal social relationships, methods by which people
acquire and maintain achieved and ascribed status, and information about how
people solve problems.
 Strategies to Infer and Explain Data
The second strategy that is used to infer and explain patterns and themes of
data is Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA). It is the range of processes and procedures
whereby we move from the qualitative data that have been collected into some
form of explanation, understanding, or interpretation of the people and situations
the researchers are investigating.
You collect qualitative data through interviews, observations, or content
analysis and then subject them to data analysis. In your data collecting activities,
you indispensably experience a lot of things vis-a-vis the sources of data, such as
their sizes, shapes, ideas, feelings, attitudes, and so on. If you record these data
through verbal language or graphic means, you get to immerse yourself in a
qualitative data analysis, not quantitative data analysis, for the latter deals with
data expressed in numerical forms. (Layder 2013)