What Is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a system that connects two or more computing devices for transmitting
and sharing information. Computing devices include everything from a mobile phone to a server.
These devices are connected using physical wires such as fiber optics, but they can also be
wireless.

The first working network, called ARPANET, was created in the late 1960s and was funded by the
U.S. Department of Defense. Government researchers used to share information at a time when
computers were large and difficult to move.

Application of Computer Network

There are a variety of fields in computer networks that are used in industries. Some of them are as
follows:

1. Internet and World Wide Web

In computer networks, we have a global internet, also known as the World Wide Web, that offers us
various features like access to websites, online services and retrieval of information. With the help of
the World Wide Web, we can browse, and we can do search, and access web pages and multimedia
content.

2. Communication

With the help of computer networks, communication is also easy because we can do email, instant
messaging, voice and video calls and video conferencing, which helps us to communicate with each
other effectively. People can use these features in their businesses and organizations to stay
connected with each other.

3. File Sharing and Data Transfer

Data transfer and file sharing are made possible by networks that connect different devices. This
covers file sharing within a business setting, file sharing between personal devices, and
downloading/uploading of content from the internet.

4. Online gaming

Multiplayer online games use computer networks to link players from all over the world, enabling
online competitions and real-time gaming experiences.

5. Remote Access and Control

Networks enable users to access and control systems and devices from a distance. This is helpful
when accessing home automation systems, managing servers, and providing remote IT support.

6. Social media

With the help of a computer network, we can use social media sites like Facebook, Twitter and
Instagram to help people set up their profiles, and we can connect with others and share content on
social media.

7. Cloud Computing
The provision of on-demand access to computing resources and services hosted in distant data
centres relies on networks. Some example of cloud computing is software as a service (SaaS),
platform as a service (PaaS) and infrastructure as service (IaaS).

8. Online Banking and E-Commerce

Online banking and e-commerce platforms, where customers conduct financial transactions and
make online purchases, require secure computer networks.

9. Enterprise Networks

In Computer networks, we have some networks that are only used in businesses and organizations
so they can store data and share files and resources like printers, scanners, etc.

10. Healthcare

With the help of computer networks in the health industry, we can share patient records and store
the records in the form of data that is easy and secure compared to the file method. Networks are
also necessary for telemedicine and remote patient monitoring.

11. Education

Schools use networks to access online courses, virtual classrooms, and other online learning
materials. Campuses of colleges and universities frequently have extensive computer networks.

12. Transportation and Logistics

The transportation sector uses Computer Networks to manage and track shipments, plan the best
routes, and coordinate logistics activities.

13. Internet of Things (IoT) and Smart Homes

Through the Internet of Things (IoT), smart homes use networks to connect to and manage a variety
of devices, including thermostats, security cameras, and smart appliances.

14. Scientific Research

To share data, work together on projects, and access high-performance computing resources for
data analysis and scientific simulations, researchers use networks.

15. Government and Defense

With the help of computer networks, we can communicate, share data, and advance national
defence. Government agencies and the military rely on secure networks.

These are just a few instances of the many areas of our lives where computer networks are used.
Computer networks are fundamental to facilitating communication, teamwork, and the effective
exchange of knowledge and resources globally.
Transmission Modes in Computer Networks (Simplex, Half-Duplex
and Full-Duplex)
Transmission modes also known as communication modes, are methods of transferring data
between devices on buses and networks designed to facilitate communication. They are classified
into three types: Simplex Mode, Half-Duplex Mode, and Full-Duplex Mode. In this article, we will
discuss Transmission Modes.

What is Transmission Modes?

Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also known as a
communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur between
individual devices that are interconnected. There are three types of transmission modes:

Simplex Mode

In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire
capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the monitor
can only give the output.

Advantages of Simplex Mode

 Simplex mode is the easiest and most reliable mode of communication.

 It is the most cost-effective mode, as it only requires one communication channel.

 There is no need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving devices, which
simplifies the communication process.

 Simplex mode is particularly useful in situations where feedback or response is not required,
such as broadcasting or surveillance.
Disadvantages of Simplex Mode

 Only one-way communication is possible.

 There is no way to verify if the transmitted data has been received correctly.

 Simplex mode is not suitable for applications that require bidirectional communication.

Half-Duplex Mode

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When
one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in
cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the same time. The entire
capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both
directions.

Channel capacity=Bandwidth * Propagation Delay

Advantages of Half Duplex Mode

 Half-duplex mode allows for bidirectional communication, which is useful in situations

where devices need to send and receive data.

 It is a more efficient mode of communication than simplex mode, as the channel can be used
for both transmission and reception.

 Half-duplex mode is less expensive than full-duplex mode, as it only requires one
communication channel.

Disadvantages of Half Duplex Mode

 Half-duplex mode is less reliable than Full-Duplex mode, as both devices cannot transmit at
the same time.

 There is a delay between transmission and reception, which can cause problems in some
applications.
  There is a need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving devices, which can
complicate the communication process.

Full-Duplex Mode

In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full_duplex mode,
signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in another direction,
this sharing can occur in two ways:

 Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and
the other for receiving.

 Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions.

Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a telephone
line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

Channel Capacity=2* Bandwidth*propagation Delay

Advantages of Full-Duplex Mode

 Full-duplex mode allows for simultaneous bidirectional communication, which is ideal for
real-time applications such as video conferencing or online gaming.

 It is the most efficient mode of communication, as both devices can transmit and receive
data simultaneously.

 Full-duplex mode provides a high level of reliability and accuracy, as there is no need for
error correction mechanisms.

Disadvantages of Full-Duplex Mode

 Full-duplex mode is the most expensive mode, as it requires two communication channels.

 It is more complex than simplex and half-duplex modes, as it requires two physically
separate transmission paths or a division of channel capacity.

 Full-duplex mode may not be suitable for all applications, as it requires a high level
of bandwidth and may not be necessary for some types of communication.

Difference Between Simplex, Half duplex, and Full Duplex Transmission Modes
Parameters Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex

Half Duplex mode is a Full Duplex mode is a

Simplex mode is a uni-
The direction of two-way directional two-way directional
directional
communication communication but communication
communication.
one at a time. simultaneously.

In Half Duplex mode, In Full Duplex mode,

In simplex mode,
Sender can send the Sender can send the
Sender and Sender can send the
data and also can data and also can
Receiver data but that sender
receive the data but receive the data
can’t receive the data.
one at a time. simultaneously.

Usage of one channel Usage of one channel Usage of two channels

Channel usage for the transmission for the transmission of for the transmission of
of data. data. data.

The simplex mode

The Half Duplex mode Full Duplex provides
provides less
provides less better performance
Performance performance than half
performance than full than simplex and half
duplex and full
duplex. duplex mode.
duplex.

The Half-Duplex
The Full-Duplex doubles
Simplex utilizes the involves lesser
Bandwidth the utilization of
maximum of a single utilization of single
Utilization transmission
bandwidth. bandwidth at the time
bandwidth.
of transmission.

It is suitable for those It is suitable for those

It is suitable for those
transmissions when transmissions when
transmissions when
there is requirement of there is requirement of
Suitable for there is requirement
sending data in both sending and receiving
of full bandwidth for
directions, but not at data simultaneously in
delivering data.
the same time. both directions.

Example of simplex Example of half duplex

Example of full duplex
Examples mode are: Keyboard mode is: Walkie-
mode is: Telephone.
and monitor. Talkies.
Protocol Hierarchy
A Protocol Hierarchy is a fixed set of rules and conventions that govern the communication between
two or more computers. The hierarchical structure allows for modular design, interoperability, and
ease of implementation in computer networks.

What is Protocol?

A protocol is simply defined as a set of rules and regulations for data communication. Rules are
defined for every step and process at the time of communication among two or more computers.
Networks are needed to follow these protocols to transmit the data successfully. All protocols might
be implemented using hardware, software, or a combination of both of them. There are three
aspects of protocols given below :

 Syntax – It is used to explain the data format that is needed to be sent or received.

 Semantics – It is used to explain the exact meaning of each of the sections of bits that are
usually transferred.

 Timings – This is used to explain the exact time at which data is generally transferred along
with the speed at which it is transferred.

Protocol Hierarchies

Generally, Computer networks are comprised of or contain a large number of hardware and
software. For network design, various networks are organized and arranged as a stack of layers of
hardware and software, one on top of another. The number, name, content, and function of each
layer might vary and can be different from one network to another. The main purpose of each layer
is to provide services to higher layers that are present. Every layer has some particular task or
function. The networks are organized and arranged as different layers or levels simply to reduce and
minimize the complexity of the design of network software.

Protocol Hierarchy

Example of Protocol Hierarchy

Below is diagram representing a five-layer network. The diagram shows communication between
Host 1 and Host 2. The data stream is passed through a number of layers from one host to other.
Virtual communication is represented using dotted lines between peer layers. Physical
communication is represented using solid arrows between adjacent layers. Through physical
medium, actual communication occurs. The layers at same level are commonly known as peers. The
peer basically has a set of communication protocols. An interface is present between each of layers
that are used to explain services provided by lower layer to higher layer.

Advantages of Protocol Hierarchy

 The layers generally reduce complexity of communication between networks

 It increases network lifetime.

 It also uses energy efficiently.

 It does not require overall knowledge and understanding of network.

Disadvantages of Protocol Hierarchy

 Protocol Hierarchy require a deep understanding of each layers of OSI model.

  Implementation of protocol hierarchy is very costly.

 Every layer in protocol hierarchy introduce overheading in terms of memory, bandwidth and
processing.

 Protocol Hierarchy is not scalable for complex networks.

Connection oriented and connection less services

In computer networks, communication between devices occurs using two types of

services: connection- -oriented and connectionless. These services define how data is transferred
between a source and a destination. Connection-oriented services establish a dedicated connection
before data transfer, ensuring reliability. In contrast, connectionless services do not establish a
connection, sending data without acknowledgment or error correction.

This article explores the differences between connection-oriented and connectionless services,
including their definitions, characteristics, advantages, and applications.

What is a Connection-Oriented Service?

Connection-oriented services involve setting up a dedicated path between the source and
destination before data transfer begins. These services ensure that data is delivered in the correct
sequence and without errors. In a connection-oriented service, the Handshake method is used to
establish the connection between sender and receiver. Before data transmission starts, connection-
oriented services create a dedicated communication channel between the sender and the recipient.
As the connection is kept open until all data is successfully transferred, this guarantees dependable
data delivery. One example is TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), which ensures error-free and
accurate data packet delivery.

Examples of Connection-Oriented Services

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) in the TCP/IP suite.

 Telephone calls in traditional telecommunication systems.

Key Features of Connection-Oriented Services

  Dedicated Connection : A logical or physical connection is established before data transfer.

 Reliable Transmission : Data is transmitted with error checking, acknowledgments, and

retransmissions in case of errors.

 Sequencing : Data packets arrive at the destination in the correct order.

 Higher Overhead : Establishing and maintaining a connection involves additional overhead.

Advantages of Connection-Oriented Services

 Reliable Data Transfer : Ensures that all data reaches its destination without errors.

 Data Sequencing : Packets are delivered in the correct order.

 Error Correction : Mechanisms are in place to detect and correct errors during transmission.

 Guaranteed Delivery : Retransmissions occur if data is lost.

Disadvantages of Connection-Oriented Services

 Higher Latency : Establishing a connection adds latency before data transfer begins.

 More Overhead : Requires more resources for maintaining the connection,

acknowledgments, and retransmissions.

 Less Efficient for Small Transfers : For short messages, the overhead of connection setup
can outweigh the benefits.

What is Connection-Less Service?

Connectionless services send data without establishing a dedicated connection between the source
and destination. Each data packet is treated independently, and there is no guarantee of delivery or
sequencing. Connection-less Service does not give a guarantee of reliability. In this, Packets do not
follow the same path to reach their destination. Connectionless Services deliver individual data
packets without first making a connection. Since each packet is sent separately, delivery, order, and
mistake correction cannot be guaranteed. As a result, the service is quicker but less
dependable. UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is one example, which is frequently used for streaming
where dependability is not as important as speed.

Examples of Connectionless Services

 UDP (User Datagram Protocol) in the TCP/IP suite.

 Postal services (analogous to sending letters without confirmation of receipt).

Key Features of Connectionless Services

 No Connection Setup : Data is sent directly without establishing a prior connection.

 Independent Packets : Each packet is treated individually and may take different routes to
the destination.

 Faster Transmission : No time is spent establishing or tearing down a connection.

 Unreliable : No acknowledgment, retransmission, or error correction is performed.

Advantages of Connectionless Services

 Low Latency : Data is transmitted immediately without waiting for a connection to be

established.

 Efficient for Small Transfers : Ideal for small, time-sensitive messages like DNS lookups or
VoIP.

 Scalable : Suitable for systems with many simultaneous users, as no connection needs to be
maintained.

Disadvantages of Connectionless Services

 Unreliable : Data packets may be lost, duplicated, or arrive out of order.

 No Error Handling : No built-in mechanisms for retransmissions or error correction.

 Unsuitable for Large Transfers : Not ideal for applications requiring reliable and ordered
delivery.

Difference Between Connection-oriented and Connectionless Services

Connection-oriented services, like TCP, ensure reliable data transfer, while connection-less services,
like UDP, offer faster, less secure communication.
Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service

Connection-oriented service is related to the Connection-less service is related to the

telephone system. postal system.

Connection-oriented service is preferred by long Connection-less Service is preferred by

and steady communication. bursty communication.

Connection-oriented Service is necessary. Connection-less Service is not compulsory.

Connection-oriented Service is feasible. Connection-less Service is not feasible.

In connection-oriented Service, Congestion is not In connection-less Service, Congestion is

possible. possible.

Connection-oriented Service gives the guarantee Connection-less Service does not give a
of reliability. guarantee of reliability.

Includes error detection, correction, and

No error handling; errors are not corrected.
retransmission.

In connection-oriented Service, Packets follow the In connection-less Service, Packets do not

same route. follow the same route.

Ensures data is delivered in the correct order. Data may arrive out of order or not at all.

Less scalable due to the need for maintaining Highly scalable for large networks with
connections. many users.

Higher overhead due to connection setup and Lower overhead as no connection is

maintenance. required.

Connection-oriented services require a bandwidth Connection-less Service requires a

of a high range. bandwidth of low range.
Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service

Ex: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) Ex: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

Connection-less Service does not require

Connection-oriented requires authentication.
authentication.

Service primitive:-
Service generally includes set of various primitives. A primitive simply means Operations. A Service is
specified by set of primitives that are available and given to user or other various entities to access
the service. All these primitives simply tell the service to perform some action or to report on action
that is taken by peer entity. Each of the protocol that communicates in layered architecture also
communicates in peer-to-peer manner with some of its remote protocol entity. Primitives are called
calling functions between the layers that are used to manage communication among the adjacent
protocol layers i.e., among the same communication node. The set of primitives that are available
generally depends upon the nature of the service that is being provided.

Classification of Service Primitives :

Primitive Meaning

It represent entity that wants or request service to perform some action or do some
Request work (requesting for connection to remote computer).

It represent entity that is to be informed about event (receiver just have received
Indication request of connection).

It represents entity that is responding to event (receiver is simply sending the

Response permission or allowing to connect).

It represent entity that acknowledges the response to earlier request that has come
Confirm back (sender just acknowledge the permission to get connected to the remote host).
In the above diagram, these four primitives work as following :

 Request – This primitive is transferred or sent to Layer N by Layer (N+1) to just request for
service.

 Indication – This primitive is returned by Layer N to Layer (N+1) to just advise of activation of
service that is being requested or of action that is initiated by the service of Layer N.

 Response – This primitive is simply provided by Layer (N+1) in reply to indication primitive. It
might acknowledge or complete action that is previously invoked by indication primitive.

 Confirm – This primitive is returned by the Nth layer to the requesting (N+1)st layer to simply
acknowledge or complete action that is previously invoked by request primitive.

Parameters of Service Primitives : Some of the Service Primitives need parameters. These are given
below :

 Connect. Request – The initiating entity does this Connect.Request. It just specifies and
determines machine that we want to get connected to, type of service that is being desired,
and maximum size of packet or message that is used on connection.

 Connect. Indication – The receiver gets this Connect.Indication. It just specifies caller’s
identity service that we want to use like FTP and Telnet, etc., and maximum size of packets
that are exchanged.

 Connect. Response – It just specifies whether or not it wants to accept or simply reject
connection that is being requested.

 Connect. Confirm – It just finds out or determines what happened using the entity that is
issuing the initial Connect. Request.

Primitives of Connection-Oriented Service :

Primitive Meaning

Listen When server is ready to accept request of incoming connection, it simply put this
 primitive into action. Listen primitive simply waiting for incoming connection
request.

This primitive is used to connect the server simply by creating or establishing

Connect connection with waiting peer.

Accept This primitive simply accepts incoming connection from the peer.

These primitive afterwards block the server. Receive primitive simply waits for
Receive incoming message.

This primitive is put into action by the client to transmit its request that is followed
by putting receive primitive into action to get the reply. Send primitive simply sends
Send or transfer the message to the peer.

This primitive is simply used to terminate or end the connection after which no one
Disconnect will be able to send any of the message.

OSI Model
 o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium
to the software application in another computer.

o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.

o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.

o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.

o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.

Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications. These
applications produce the data to be transferred over the network. This layer also
serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for
displaying the received information to the user. Protocols used in the Application
layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.

Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is
extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network. Protocols
used in the Presentation Layer are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the ciphertext, and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A
key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.

 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

Session Layer
Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of connections, management of
connections, terminations of sessions between two devices. It also provides authentication and
security. Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.

Functions of the Session Layer

 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two processes
to establish, use, and terminate a connection.

 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so
that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely,
and data loss is avoided.

 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full duplex.

Transport Layer

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network
layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-end
delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found. Protocols used in
Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.

At the sender’s side, the transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data
transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and forwards the
segmented data to the Network Layer.

 Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For
example, when a web application requests a web server, it typically uses port number 80,
because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have default
ports assigned.

At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the
Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and
reassembling of the segmented data.

Network Layer

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the
packet, from the number of routes available. The sender and receiver’s IP address are placed in the
header by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet. Network layer is
implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.

Functions of the Network Layer

  Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.

 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender and receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the
header by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.

Data Link Layer (DLL)

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of
this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical
layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host
using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame. Switches and Bridges are
common Data Link Layer devices.

The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:

 Logical Link Control (LLC)

 Media Access Control (MAC)

The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame
size of the NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address
in the header.

The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) request
onto the wire asking, “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC
address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.

 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses
(MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.

 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects
and retransmits damaged or lost frames.

 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted
thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an
acknowledgment.

 Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the
MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the
channel at a given time.
Physical Layer

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form
of bits. Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When
receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to
the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together. Common physical layer devices
are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.

Physical Layer

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing
a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the
bit level.

 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits
sent per second.

 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged
in a network i.e. bus topology, star topology, or mesh topology.

 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two
connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex
and full duplex.

Tcp/ip model
The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer networking. It stands for Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core protocols of the Internet. This model defines
how data is transmitted over networks, ensuring reliable communication between devices. It
consists of four layers: the Link Layer, the Internet Layer, the Transport Layer, and the Application
Layer. Each layer has specific functions that help manage different aspects of network
communication, making it essential for understanding and working with modern networks.

TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and is based
on standard protocols. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four
layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.
Layers of TCP/IP Model

 Application Layer

 Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)

 Network/Internet Layer(IP)

 Network Access Layer

The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:

Network Access Layer

The Network Access Layer represents a collection of applications that require network
communication. This layer is responsible for generating data and initiating connection requests. It
operates on behalf of the sender to manage data transmission, while the Network Access layer on
the receiver’s end processes and manages incoming data. In this article, we will focus on its role
from the receiver’s perspective.
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by network access layer. Error
prevention and “framing” are also provided by this layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and
Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.

2. Internet or Network Layer

This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols residing
at this layer are as follows:

 IP:IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source
host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2
versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is
growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when compared to the
number of users.

 ICMP:ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP

datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.

 ARP:ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a
host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous
ARP, and Inverse ARP.

The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of protocols that
define the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from one device to
another across a network. It does this by assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to
identify the device and determine the route that packets should take to reach it.

Example: Imagine that you are using a computer to send an email to a friend. When you click
“send,” the email is broken down into smaller packets of data, which are then sent to the Internet
Layer for routing. The Internet Layer assigns an IP address to each packet and uses routing tables to
determine the best route for the packet to take to reach its destination. The packet is then
forwarded to the next hop on its route until it reaches its destination. When all of the packets have
been delivered, your friend’s computer can reassemble them into the original email message.

In this example, the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email from your computer to
your friend’s computer. It uses IP addresses and routing tables to determine the best route for the
packets to take, and it ensures that the packets are delivered to the correct destination. Without the
Internet Layer, it would not be possible to send data across the Internet.

3. Transport Layer

The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit
missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end communication
is referred to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport
layer protocols at this level (UDP).

 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were physically
connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character
transmission rather than separate packets. A starting point that establishes the connection,
the whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the connection make
up this transmission.
  UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP , the other transport layer protocol.
Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that
transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes
of establishing and validating connections.

4. Application Layer

The Application Layer in the TCP/IP model combines the functions of three layers from the OSI
model: the Application, Presentation, and Session layers. This layer is analogous to the transport
layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of
data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of data. The three main protocols
present in this layer are:

 HTTP and HTTPS:HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World Wide
Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for
HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases
where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry out bank
transactions.

 SSH:SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet. The
reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets
up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.

 NTP:NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our
computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions.
Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a
transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at
2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.

The host-to-host layer is a layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model that is responsible
for providing communication between hosts (computers or other devices) on a network. It is also
known as the transport layer.

Some common use cases for the host-to-host layer include:

 Reliable Data Transfer: The host-to-host layer ensures that data is transferred reliably
between hosts by using techniques like error correction and flow control. For example, if a
packet of data is lost during transmission, the host-to-host layer can request that the packet
be retransmitted to ensure that all data is received correctly.

 Segmentation and Reassembly: The host-to-host layer is responsible for breaking up large
blocks of data into smaller segments that can be transmitted over the network, and then
reassembling the data at the destination. This allows data to be transmitted more efficiently
and helps to avoid overloading the network.

 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: The host-to-host layer is responsible for multiplexing data
from multiple sources onto a single network connection, and then demultiplexing the data
at the destination. This allows multiple devices to share the same network connection and
helps to improve the utilization of the network.

 End-to-End Communication: The host-to-host layer provides a connection-oriented service

that allows hosts to communicate with each other end-to-end, without the need for
intermediate devices to be involved in the communication.
Example: Consider a network with two hosts, A and B. Host A wants to send a file to host B. The
host-to-host layer in host A will break the file into smaller segments, add error correction and flow
control information, and then transmit the segments over the network to host B. The host-to-host
layer in host B will receive the segments, check for errors, and reassemble the file. Once the file has
been transferred successfully, the host-to-host layer in host B will acknowledge receipt of the file to
host A.

In this example, the host-to-host layer is responsible for providing a reliable connection between
host A and host B, breaking the file into smaller segments, and reassembling the segments at the
destination. It is also responsible for multiplexing and demultiplexing the data and providing end-to-
end communication between the two hosts.