Transducers

A transducer is defined as any electronic device that converts energy of one

form to energy of another form. Simple examples of conversion within forms of
energy are transducers are devices like microphones, which convert sound energy
into electrical energy.
Transducers are often used in the field of automation, measurements where
electrical signals are being converted into physical energy forms or vice versa.

Transducer Definition:

A transducer is defined as any electronic device that helps energy conversion from
one form to the energy of another form. The energy is generally a signal of some
form; it can be both an input and an output signal.

Parts of Transducer

Transducers consist of two basic parts which are:

o The Sensor part senses a particular type of energy. It gives a response

according to the physical phenomenon that it senses. The response serves as
the input for the transducing element.
o The Transducing part converts the energy sensed by the sensor into some
other form of energy.

Different types of sensors and transducing parts are used in different

transducers, which depend on the application of the transducer. For example, a
transducer that converts pressure signals into electrical signals will have a pressure
sensor whereas a transducer like a microphone will have sensors for sound energy .

Working Principle of Transducer

A transducer consisting of a sensing element and transducing element, first

responds to a physical change in the particular factor which the sensing element
senses and generates an output. This output is generally in terms of physical forces
like strain or displacement (linear or angular). The output of the sensing element
generally acts as an input for the transducing element which then converts the
output signal of the sensing element into a proportional output as an electrical
signal.

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Classification of Transducers

There are various types of transducers that have been discussed here:

o Based on operating principle

o Based on the role of the transducing element
o Based on output signals
o Based on applications

Active and Passive Transducers

On the basis of the requirement of electricity, transducers are of two types:

o Active transducers operate on receiving an external electric current. This

current is known as an excitation signal. This signal is modified into an output
signal. For example, an LED is an active transducer because on receiving
electrical current it converts the electrical energy into light energy.
o Passive transducers operate on receiving an external signal, which they then
convert into an electrical signal. For example, an LVDT (Linear Variable
Differential Transformer) converts rectilinear motion into electrical energy.

Primary and Secondary Transducers

On the basis of the role of the transducing element, transducers are divided into:

o Primary transducers are generally the transducers that respond to external

stimulation and general output for that signal. The output is generally a
change in any factor affecting the secondary transducer.
o Secondary transducers are the ones that convert the output of the primary
transducer into an electrical signal.

Analog and Digital Transducers

Based on the output signal, transducers are classified into:

o Analog transducers: These transducers produce an output signal that is

proportional to the input signal. Examples include potentiometers, variable
resistors, and strain gauges.

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 o Digital transducers: These transducers produce an output signal that is in
digital form. Examples include encoders, photo interrupters, and Hall Effect
sensors.

Sensors and Actuators

Based on their applications, transducers are classified into:

o Sensors: These transducers are used to measure physical quantities, such

as temperature, pressure, and flow. Examples include thermocouples, strain
gauges, and flow meters.
o Actuators: These transducers are used to control physical systems, such as
motors and valves. Examples include electric motors, solenoids, and
piezoelectric actuators.

Uses of Transducers

Transducers find their uses in a variety of applications like

o In ultrasound machines convert the variations of sound energy into electrical

output which can be read on a display.
o Microphones convert sound energy into electrical energy.
o An antenna where converts electromagnetic signals into electrical signals.
o In a digital RPM meter of a vehicle where transducers convert the torque
produced by the engines into electrical signals which is further converted into
readable data on the display.

Difference between Transducer and Sensor

The differences between transducer and sensor have been discussed in this table:

Transducers Sensors

Transducers are devices that Sensors are devices that convert physical
convert the energy of one form into quantities into either a readable form or into
another. electrical signals which are then used with
transducers in tandem.

Examples are microphones, LVDT, Examples are pressure sensors, motion sensors,
LED, loudspeakers, etc. etc.

Factors Influencing the Choice of Transducer

The choice of the transducers used for measuring the physical quantity depends on
the following factors.

1. Operating Principle – The transducers are selected by their operating principles.

The operating principle may be resistive, inductive, capacitive, optoelectronic,
piezoelectric, etc.

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 2. Sensitivity – The sensitivity of the transducer is enough for inducing the
detectable output.
3. Operating Range – The transducer must have wide operating ranges so that it
does not break during the working.
4. Accuracy – The transducers gives accuracy after calibration. It has a small value
for repeatability which is essentials for the industrial applications.
5. Cross Sensitivity – The transducers gives variable measured value for the
different planes because of the sensitivity. Hence, for the accurate
measurement, the cross sensitivity is essential.
6. Errors – The errors are avoided by taking the input output relations which is
obtained by the transfer function.
7. Loading Effect – The transducers have high input impedance and low output
impedance for avoiding the errors.
8. Environmental Compatibility – The transducers should be able to work in any
specified environments like in a corrosive environment. It should be able to
work under high pressure and shocks.
9. Insensitivity to Unwanted Signals – The transducer should be sensitive enough
for ignoring the unwanted and high sensitive signals.
10.Usage and Ruggedness – The durability, size and weight of the transducer must
be known before selecting it.
11.Stability and Reliability – The stability of the transducers should be high enough
for the operation. And their reliability should be good in case of failure of the
transducer.
12.Static characteristic – The transducer should have a high linearity and
resolution, but it has low hysteresis. The transducer is always free from the load
and temperature.

Resistive Transducer
The transducer whose resistance varies because of the environmental
effects such type of transducer is known as the resistive transducer. The change in
resistance is measured by the ac or dc measuring devices. The resistive
transducer is used for measuring the physical quantities like temperature,
displacement, vibration etc

The measurement of the physical quantity is quite difficult. The

resistive transducer converts the physical quantities into variable resistance which is
easily measured by the meters. The process of variation in resistance is widely used
in the industrial applications.

The resistive transducer can work both as the primary as well as the
secondary transducer. The primary transducer changes the physical quantities into a
mechanical signal, and secondary transducer directly transforms it into an electrical
signal.

Example – The circuit of the sliding resistive transducer is shown in the figure
below. The sliding contacts are placed on the resistive element. The slider moves
horizontally. The movement of the slider changes the value of the resistive element
of the transducer which is measured by the voltage source E.

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The displacement of the slider is converted into an electrical signal.

Advantages of Resistive Transducer

The following are the advantages of the resistive transducer.

1. Both the AC and DC, current or voltage is appropriate for the measurement of
variable resistance.
2. The resistive transducer gives the fast response.
3. It is available in various sizes and having a high range of resistance.
Working Principle of Resistive Transducer

The resistive transducer element works on the principle that the resistance of the
element is directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely
proportional to the area of the conductor.

Where R – resistance in ohms.

A – Cross-section area of the conductor in meter square.
L – Length of the conductor in meter square.
ρ – The resistivity of the conductor in materials in ohm meter.

The resistive transducer is designed by considering the variation of the length, area
and resistivity of the metal.

Applications of Resistive Transducer

The following are the applications of the resistive transducer.

1. Potentiometer – The translation and rotatory potentiometer are the examples

of the resistive transducers. The resistance of their conductor varies with the
variation in their lengths which is used for the measurement of displacement.

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 2. Strain gauges – The resistance of their semiconductor material changes when
the strain occurs on it. This property of metals is used for the measurement of
the pressure, force-displacement etc.
3. Resistance Thermometer – The resistance of the metals changes because of
changes in temperature. This property of conductor is used for measuring the
temperature.
4. Thermistor – It works on the principle that the temperature coefficient of the
thermistor material varies with the temperature. The thermistor has the
negative temperature coefficient. The Negative temperature coefficient means
the temperature is inversely proportional to resistance.

There are a number of ways because of which the resistance of the metal changes
with the changed in the physical phenomenon. And this property of conductors is
used for measuring the physical quantities of material.

Capacitive Transducer
The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the displacement, pressure
and other physical quantities. It is a passive transducer that means it requires
external power for operation. The capacitive transducer works on the principle of
variable capacitances. The capacitance of the capacitive transducer changes
because of many reasons like overlapping of plates, change in distance between the
plates and dielectric constant.

The capacitive transducer contains two parallel metal plates. These plates are
separated by the dielectric medium which is either air, material, gas or liquid. In the
normal capacitor the distance between the plates are fixed, but in capacitive
transducer the distance between them are varied.

The capacitive transducer uses the electrical quantity of capacitance for

converting the mechanical movement into an electrical signal. The input quantity
causes the change of the capacitance which is directly measured by the capacitive
transducer.

The capacitors measure both the static and dynamic changes. The
displacement is also measured directly by connecting the measurable devices to the
movable plate of the capacitor. It works on with both the contacting and non-
contacting modes.

Principle of Operation

The equations below express the capacitance between the plates of a capacitor

Where A – overlapping area of plates in m 2

d – the distance between two plates in meter
ε – permittivity of the medium in F/m
εr – relative permittivity
ε0 – the permittivity of free space

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The schematic diagram of a parallel plate capacitive transducer is shown in the
figure below.

The change in capacitance occurs because of the physicals variables like

displacement, force, pressure, etc. The capacitance of the transducer also changes
by the variation in their dielectric constant which is usually because of the
measurement of liquid or gas level.

The capacitance of the transducer is measured with the bridge circuit. The output
impedance of transducer is given as

Where, C – capacitance
f – frequency of excitation in Hz.

The capacitive transducer is mainly used for measurement of linear displacement.

The capacitive transducer uses the following three effects.

1. Variation in capacitance of transducer is because of the overlapping of capacitor

plates.
2. The change in capacitance is because of the change in distances between the
plates.
3. The capacitance changes because of dielectric constant.

The following methods are used for the measuring displacement.

1. A transducer using the change in the Area of Plates – The equation below
shows that the capacitance is directly proportional to the area of the plates. The
capacitance changes correspondingly with the change in the position of the plates.

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The capacitive transducers are used for measuring the large displacement
approximately from 1mm to several cms. The area of the capacitive transducer
changes linearly with the capacitance and the displacement. Initially, the
nonlinearity occurs in the system because of the edges. Otherwise, it gives the
linear response.

The capacitance of the parallel plates is given as

Where x – the length of overlapping part of plates

ω – the width of overlapping part of plates.

The sensitivity of the displacement is constant, and therefore it gives the linear
relation between the capacitance and displacement.

The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the angular displacement. It is

measured by the movable plates shown below. One of the plates of the transducer is
fixed, and the other is movable.

The phasor diagram of the transducer is shown in the figure below.

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The angular movement changes the capacitance of the transducers. The
capacitance between them is maximum when these plates overlap each other. The
maximum value of capacitance is expressed as

The capacitance at angle θ is given expressed as,

θ – angular displacement in radian. The sensitivity for the change in capacitance is

given as

The 180° is the maximum value of the angular displacement of the capacitor.

2. The transducer using the change in distance between the plates – The
capacitance of the transducer is inversely proportional to the distance between the
plates. The one plate of the transducer is fixed, and the other is movable. The
displacement which is to be measured links to the movable plates.

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The capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance because of which the
capacitor shows the nonlinear response. Such type of transducer is used for
measuring the small displacement. The phasor diagram of the capacitor is shown in
the figure below.

The sensitivity of the transducer is not constant and vary from places to places.

Advantage of Capacitive Transducer

The following are the major advantages of capacitive transducers.

1. It requires an external force for operation and hence very useful for small
systems.
2. The capacitive transducer is very sensitive.
3. It gives good frequency response because of which it is used for the dynamic
study.
4. The transducer has high input impedance hence they have a small loading
effect.
5. It requires small output power for operation.
Disadvantages of capacitive Transducer

The main disadvantages of the transducer are as follows.

1. The metallic parts of the transducers require insulation.

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 2. The frame of the capacitor requires earthing for reducing the effect of the stray
magnetic field.
3. Sometimes the transducer shows the nonlinear behaviours because of the edge
effect which is controlled by using the guard ring.
4. The cable connecting across the transducer causes an error.
Uses of Capacitive Transducer

The following are the uses of capacitive transducer.

1. The capacitive transducer uses for measurement of both the linear and angular
displacement. It is extremely sensitive and used for the measurement of very
small distance.
2. It is used for the measurement of the force and pressures. The force or
pressure, which is to be measured, is first converted into a displacement, and
then the displacement changes the capacitances of the transducer.
3. It is used as a pressure transducer in some cases, where the dielectric constant
of the transducer changes with the pressure.
4. The humidity in gases is measured through the capacitive transducer.
5. The transducer uses the mechanical modifier for measuring the volume,
density, weight etc.

The accuracy of the transducer depends on the variation of temperature to the high
level.

INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
In inductive transducers, there are magnetic materials used in the flux path,
and there is also one or more number of air gaps. If there is any change in air gap,
there will be change in the inductance of the circuit. By its principle, the self
inductance or mutual inductance of a pair of coils or production of eddy currents is
changed whenever there is variation in the quantity to be measured.

If the inductive transducer is functioning based on the self inductance, the

inductance of the coil can be expressed in terms of reluctance of the magnetic
circuit such as:

Inductance L = 𝑁2/ 𝑅

Where, N is the number of turns of the coil R is the reluctance of the magnetic

The reluctance of the magnetic coil can also be expressed as, R = 1 𝜇𝑜𝜇𝑟𝐴
circuit

Where, 𝜇𝑜 is the permeability of air.

𝜇𝑟 is the relative permeability.
A is the area of cross-section of the coil / is the length of the coil.

Therefore, the inductance of a coil can be expressed in terms of number of

turns (N), permeability of the material (μ) and geometric factor (G).

Since the inductance is a function of N, μ and G, i.e., L = f( N, μ, G) any

variable which changes any one of the above quantities, the inductance of the coil
gets changed. Further, this change in inductance can be further converted into the
required form.

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EXAMPLES OF INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS

There are many transducers working on the principle of variation in inductance.

Some of the important transducers are listed as follows:
1. Induction potentiometers
2. Linear Variable Displacement Transformer (LVDT)
3. Variable reluctance accelerometer
4. Synchro
5. Resolvers, etc.

SIMPLE INDUCTANCE TYPE TRANSDUCER

In simple inductance type, there are three different constructional
arrangements of the inductive coil such as:

Type 1. Inductance coil can be wounded over a rectangular type magnetic material.
Type 2. Inductance coil can be wounded on a cylindrical type material.
Type 3. Two coils are used.

CONSTRUCTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS:

TYPE 1: INDUCTANCE COIL WOUNDED OVER A RECTANGULAR TYPE

MAGNETIC MATERIAL

In this kind of inductive transducer, a single inductive coil of N turns is wound

around a rectangular type ferromagnetic material. This inductive coil is the source of
magneto-motive force which drives the flux through the magnetic circuit.

Simple inductance type transducer of first type.

 There is an armature element placed opposite to the inductive coil wounded

 Whenever there is any movement in the mechanical armature element, there
will be changes in the permeability of the flux path generated which will
further change the inductance of the circuit.
 Based on the change in the inductance, the corresponding output will be
obtained.
 This output can be calibrated directly against the change in movement of the
armature element.

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TYPE 2. INDUCTANCE COIL CAN BE WOUNDED ON A CYLINDRICAL TYPE MATERIAL.

Simple inductance type transducer of second type

 In this type, a round hollow magnetic material is used and over which the
inductive coil is wounded.
 There is a movable magnetic core located inside the hollow tube.
 Due to the core movement, there will be change in the inductance which
produces a corresponding output in the output indicator connected across the
coil wounded.

TYPE 3: INDUCTANCE TRANSDUCERS OF TWO COILS TYPE.

Simple inductance type transducer of two-coil type

 In this type, two coils are used.

 Whenever there is a movement of the magnetic core located at the center of
two coils, there will be change in the relative inductance of the two coils.
 Due to this, the overall inductance of the circuit will also be changed which is
proportional to the change in the ratio of the two inductive coils.

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