Notes upon the subject of Calculus

𝕽udravisek

February 3, 2025
 Contents

Day 1 Page 1
1.1 One Sided Limits 1
1.2 Limit Points 4

Day 2 Page 6

i
Day 1
1.1 One Sided Limits
Definition 1.1.1: Right Hand Limit (RHL)

A function 𝑓 defined on a set containing (𝑐, 𝑑) is said to tend to (or approach) a number 𝑙
as 𝑥 tends to (or approaches) 𝑐 from the right (or from the above), if ∀𝜀 > 0, we can find
𝛿 > 0 such that whenever 𝑐 < 𝑥 < 𝑐 + 𝛿

=⇒ | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑙| < 𝜀

In other words,

lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑙 =⇒ lim 𝑓 (𝑥 + 0) = 𝑙,

𝑥→𝑐 + 𝑥→𝑐

while 𝑓 (𝑐) may or may not exist.

𝑙+𝜀

𝑓 (𝑥)
𝑙

𝑥
𝑐 𝑥 𝑐+𝛿

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 Definition 1.1.2: Left Hand Limit (LHL)

A function 𝑓 defined on a set containing (𝑐, 𝑑) is said to tend to (or approach) a number 𝑙
as 𝑥 tends to (or approaches) 𝑑 from the left (or from below), if ∀𝜀 > 0, we can find 𝛿 > 0
such that whenever 𝑑 − 𝛿 < 𝑥 < 𝑑

=⇒ | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑙| < 𝜀

In other words,

lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑙 =⇒ lim 𝑓 (𝑥 − 0) = 𝑙,

𝑥→𝑑 − 𝑥→𝑑

while 𝑓 (𝑑) may or may not exist.

𝑓 (𝑥)
𝑙−𝜀

𝑥
𝑑−𝛿𝑥 𝑑

Example 1.1.1 Compute the RHL and LHL of the following function:

| 𝑥|
𝑓 (𝑥) =
𝑥

Solution: Given function,

| 𝑥|
𝑓 (𝑥) = .
𝑥
This implies that,
𝑓 (𝑥) = 1, ∀𝑥 > 0
and
𝑓 (𝑥) = −1, ∀𝑥 < 0
Let 𝜀 > 0 be a given positive real and let 𝛿 = 𝜀.
Then, whenever 0 < 𝑥 < 𝛿,

=⇒ | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 1| = |1 − 1| = 0 < 𝜀
=⇒ | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 1| < 𝜀
=⇒ lim+ 𝑓 (𝑥) = 1.
𝑥→0

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Also, whenever −𝛿 < 𝑥 < 0,

=⇒ | 𝑓 (𝑥) − (−1)| = | − 1 + 1| = 0 < 𝜀

=⇒ | 𝑓 (𝑥) − (−1)| < 𝜀
=⇒ lim− 𝑓 (𝑥) = −1.
𝑥→0

Example 1.1.2 Compute the RHL and LHL of the following function:

𝑓 (𝑥) = [𝑥] (the greatest integer function)

Solution: Given function,

𝑓 (𝑥) = [𝑥].
Graph of [𝑥]:

2 𝑦 = [𝑥]

1
𝑥
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1

−2

−3

It is clear from the graph, that if 𝑛 ∈ ℤ, then, lim+ 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑛 and lim− 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑛 − 1.
𝑥→𝑛 𝑥→𝑛

Exercise 1.1.1 Find a condition for which the LHL of the following function will be equal
to 1:



 1 − 2𝑥, 𝑥 < 0


𝑓 (𝑥) = 0, 𝑥=0


 1 + 3𝑥, 𝑥 > 0


Solution: Let 𝜀 > 0 be a given positive real. Now, we have to find a suitable 𝛿 > 0 such that
whenever −𝛿 < 𝑥 < 0, the following inequality will hold:

| 𝑓 (𝑥) − 1| < 𝜀

=⇒ |1 − 2𝑥 − 1| < 𝜀, since −𝛿 < 𝑥 < 0 =⇒ 𝑥 < 0

=⇒ | − 2𝑥| < 𝜀
=⇒ 2| 𝑥| < 𝜀

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 =⇒ −2𝑥 < 𝜀, since 𝑥 < 0
=⇒ 2𝑥 > −𝜀
−𝜀
=⇒ 𝑥 >
2
Now, 𝜀 > 0 =⇒ 2𝜀 > 0. Let 𝛿 = 2𝜀 .
Therefore, whenever, −𝛿 < 𝑥 < 0 =⇒ | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 1| < 𝜀 =⇒ lim− 𝑓 (𝑥) = 1.
𝑥→0

1.2 Limit Points

Definition 1.2.1: Limit Point
Let 𝐴 ∈ ℝ. A point 𝑐 is called a limit point of 𝐴 (or a cluster point of 𝐴) if any of the
following equivalent conditions hold:

1 Every 𝛿-neighbourhood of 𝑐, 𝑉𝛿 (𝑐) = (𝑐 − 𝛿, 𝑐 + 𝛿), contains at least one point of 𝐴

other than 𝑐.

2 For every 𝛿 > 0, (𝑐 − 𝛿, 𝑐 + 𝛿) ∩ 𝐴 \ {𝑐} ≠ 𝜙.

3 For every 𝛿 > 0, there exists at least one point 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐 ∋ 𝑥 ∈ (𝑐 − 𝛿, 𝑐 + 𝛿).

4 For every 𝛿 > 0, there exists at least one point 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐 ∋ | 𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝛿.

5 For every 𝛿 > 0, there exists at least one point 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∋ 0 < | 𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝛿.

Theorem 1.2.1
If 𝑐 is a limit point of 𝐴, then, there exist infinitely many elements of 𝐴 in each neighbour-
hood of 𝑐.

Proof: Suppose, there exists a neighbourhood 𝑉 of 𝑐 which contains only a finite number of
elements of 𝐴. Let 𝑎 1 , 𝑎 2 , . . . , 𝑎 𝑛 be those elements of 𝑉 ∩ 𝐴 which are distinct from 𝑐, and put

𝑟 = min (| 𝑐 − 𝑎 𝑚 |)
1⩽ 𝑚 ⩽ 𝑛

Now, consider the neighbourhood 𝑉𝑟 (𝑐) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ : | 𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝑟}. Clearly, 𝑉𝑟 (𝑐) ∩ 𝐴 is empty,
which contradicts the fact that 𝑐 is a limit point of 𝐴.
Hence, if 𝑐 is a limit point of 𝐴, then, there exist infinitely many elements of 𝐴 in each neigh-
bourhood of 𝑐.
Note:-
If 𝑐 is a limit point of 𝐴, then 𝑐 may or may not be a member of 𝐴.

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 Theorem 1.2.2
A number 𝑐 ∈ ℝ is a limit point of a set 𝐴 ⊂ ℝ if and only if there exists a sequence
{𝑎 𝑛 } in 𝐴 such that lim(𝑎 𝑛 ) = 𝑐 and 𝑎 𝑛 ≠ 𝑐, ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

Proof: Let us first suppose that 𝑐 is a limit point of 𝐴.

To prove: There exists a sequence {𝑎 𝑛 } in 𝐴 with lim(𝑎 𝑛
) = 𝑐 and 𝑎 𝑛 ≠ 𝑐, ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
Since, 𝑐 is a limit point
of 𝐴, it implies that 𝑐 − 𝑛1 , 𝑐 + 𝑛1 ∩ 𝐴 \ {𝑐} ≠ 𝜙, ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
Let 𝑎 𝑛 ∈ 𝑐 − 𝑛1 , 𝑐 + 𝑛1 ∩ 𝐴 \ {𝑐}, ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ
=⇒ 𝑎 𝑛 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑎 𝑛 ≠ 𝑐 and | 𝑎 𝑛 − 𝑐| < 𝑛1 , ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ
=⇒ 𝑎 𝑛 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑎 𝑛 ≠ 𝑐, ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ and lim(𝑎 𝑛 ) = 𝑐

Hence, if 𝑐 is a limit point of 𝐴, there exists a sequence {𝑎 𝑛 } in 𝐴 such that lim(𝑎 𝑛 ) = 𝑐

and 𝑎 𝑛 ≠ 𝑐, ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (i).

Let us now suppose that there exists a sequence {𝑎 𝑛 } in 𝐴 such that lim(𝑎 𝑛 ) = 𝑐 and
𝑎 𝑛 ≠ 𝑐, ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
To prove: 𝑐 is a limit point of 𝐴.
Given, lim(𝑎 𝑛 ) = 𝑐
=⇒ ∀𝛿 > 0, ∃𝑚 ∈ ℕ ∋ | 𝑎 𝑛 − 𝑐| < 𝛿, ∀𝑛 ⩾ 𝑚
=⇒ 𝑎 𝑛 ∈ 𝑉𝛿 (𝑐) and 𝑎 𝑛 ∈ 𝐴, ∀𝑛 ⩾ 𝑚
=⇒ 𝑎 𝑛 ∈ 𝑉𝛿 (𝑐) ∩ 𝐴 \ {𝑐}, ∀𝑛 ⩾ 𝑚
=⇒ ∀𝛿 > 0, 𝑉𝛿 (𝑐) ∩ 𝐴 \ {𝑐} ≠ 𝜙.
=⇒ 𝑐 is a limit point of 𝐴.

Hence, if there exists a sequence {𝑎 𝑛 } in 𝐴 such that lim(𝑎 𝑛 ) = 𝑐 and 𝑎 𝑛 ≠ 𝑐, ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ,

then, 𝑐 is a limit point of 𝐴 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (ii).

From (i) and (ii) we get that, a number 𝑐 ∈ ℝ is a limit point of a set 𝐴 ⊂ ℝ if and only if
there exists a sequence {𝑎 𝑛 } in 𝐴 such that lim(𝑎 𝑛 ) = 𝑐 and 𝑎 𝑛 ≠ 𝑐, ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

Definition 1.2.2: Limit of a function (in context of limit points)

Let 𝐴 ⊂ ℝ and let 𝑐 be a limit point of 𝐴. Consider 𝑓 : 𝐴 → ℝ. A real number 𝐿 is said

to be the limit of 𝑓 at 𝑐 if any one of the following equivalent conditions hold:

1 ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝛿 𝜀 > 0 ∋ | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀, whenever 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 0 < | 𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝛿 𝜀 .

2 ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝛿 𝜀 > 0 ∋ 𝐿−𝜀 < 𝑓 (𝑥) < 𝐿+𝜀, whenever 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐 and 𝑐−𝛿 𝜀 < 𝑥 < 𝑐+𝛿 𝜀 .

3 ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝛿 𝜀 > 0 ∋ 𝑓 (𝑥) ∈ 𝑉𝜀 (𝐿), whenever 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝑉𝛿 𝜀 (𝑐).

4 ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝛿 𝜀 > 0 ∋ 𝑓 (𝑥) ∈ 𝑉𝜀 (𝐿), whenever 𝑥 ∈ 𝑉𝛿 𝜀 (𝑐) ∩ 𝐴 \ {𝑐}.

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Day 2

Theorem 2.0.1 Uniqueness of Limit

If 𝑓 : 𝐴 → ℝ and if 𝑐 is a limit point of 𝐴 then 𝑓 can have only one limit at 𝑐.

Proof: Let us suppose that there exists 𝑙 and 𝑙 ′ such that lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑙 and lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑙 ′.
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
This implies that for any 𝜀 > 0, ∃𝛿1 > 0 such that whenever, 0 < | 𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝛿 1 =⇒ | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑙| < 𝜀
and ∃𝛿2 > 0 such that whenever 0 < | 𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝛿 2 =⇒ | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑙 ′| < 𝜀.
Let 𝛿 0 = min{𝛿1 , 𝛿 2 }. Thus, whenever 0 < | 𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝛿 0

=⇒ | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑙| < 𝜀 and | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑙 ′| < 𝜀

If 𝑙 and 𝑙 ′ are indeed distinct, then, | 𝑙 − 𝑙 ′| > 0 =⇒ 2|𝑙

1
− 𝑙 ′| < 0.
Let 𝜀 = 12 | 𝑙 − 𝑙 ′|. Whenever, 0 < | 𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝛿 0

1 1
=⇒ | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑙| < | 𝑙 − 𝑙 ′| and | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑙 ′| < | 𝑙 − 𝑙 ′|
2 2
Adding the above two inequalities, we get,

1 1
| 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑙| + | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑙 ′| < | 𝑙 − 𝑙 ′| + | 𝑙 − 𝑙 ′|
2 2
=⇒ | 𝑙 − 𝑓 (𝑥)| + | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑙 ′| < | 𝑙 − 𝑙 ′|



=⇒ 𝑙 − 𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑙 ′ ⩽ | 𝑙 − 𝑓 (𝑥)| + | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑙 ′| < | 𝑙 − 𝑙 ′| (by the triangle inequality)

 + 
 − 𝑙 ′ < | 𝑙 − 𝑙 ′|
=⇒ 𝑙 −𝑓 (𝑥) 
𝑓 (𝑥)
=⇒ | 𝑙 − 𝑙 ′| < | 𝑙 − 𝑙 ′|

This is a contradiction, as there exists no such real number which is less than itself.
Hence, the limit of a function at any given point is unique.

Example 2.0.1
Let 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ. Prove that, lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑏.
𝑥→𝑐

Solution: Let 𝜀 > 0 be any positive real number.

| 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑏| = |𝑏 − 𝑏| = |0| = 0 < 𝜀. This holds ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ..

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Therefore, ∀𝛿 > 0 if 0 < | 𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝛿, then, | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑏| < 𝜀.
=⇒ lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑏.
𝑥→𝑐
Hence, proved.

Exercise 2.0.1
Let 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥. Prove that, lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑐.
𝑥→𝑐

Solution: Let 𝜀 > 0 be any positive real number and let 𝛿 𝜀 = 𝜀.

Then, whenever 0 < | 𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝛿 𝜀 =⇒ 0 < | 𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝜀 =⇒ | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑐| < 𝜀
=⇒ lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑐.
𝑥→𝑐
Hence, proved.