A REPORT ON

DATA CONVERSION & TRANSMISSION

TECHNIQUES
FOR
CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT-2
PAPER: DIGITAL ELECTRONICS & MICROPROCESSOR
PAPER CODE: ES TT 401

Submitted by
SUBHAJIT DAS
Roll No:11001422037
Registration No:221100110174
Course: B.Tech. in Textile Technology
Semester: SEM-4

Govt. College of Engg. & Textile Technology, Serampore

Serampore, Hooghly-712201

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 INTRODUCTION
Data conversion involves the transformation of information from one format to another, allowing compatibility
between different devices, applications, or platforms. Whether it's converting analog signals to digital or
translating data between different file formats, the ability to convert data seamlessly is fundamental for
interoperability in today's complex technological ecosystem.Simultaneously, data transmission techniques are
instrumental in the effective and secure transfer of information across networks. From wired to wireless
communication, these techniques encompass a range of methods and protocols to ensure that data reaches its
destination intact and in a timely manner.
This dynamic interplay between data conversion and transmission is a critical aspect of modern computing and
communication systems, influencing the performance and reliability of applications, devices, and networks.

DATA CONVERSION & ITS TECHNIQUES

Data Conversion is the process of changing or converting one form of data in to another form. In processing and
communication there are only two types of data forms i.e analog and digital data.

• Real world signals are analog signals continuous time & amplitude (temp, pressure, position, sound,
light, speed, etc.).
• Digital processors can only process digital signals which are discrete time and discrete amplitude.
• In order to interface digital processors with the analog world, data acquisition and reconstruction circuits
must be used: analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) to acquire and digitize the analog signal at the front
end, and digital-to-analog converters (DACs) to reproduce the analog signal at the back end.

→ Digital data conversion system requires ADC and DAC.

Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) and its conversion method:- Analog-to-digital conversion is

the process of converting the output of the sampleand-hold circuit to a series of binary codes that represent the
amplitude of the analog input at each of the sample times. The sample-and-hold process keeps the amplitude of
the analog input signal constant between sample pulses; therefore, the analog-todigital conversion can be done
using a constant value rather than having the analog signal change during a conversion interval, which is the
time between sample pulses.

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FIGURE: Basic function of an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) (The binary codes and number of bits are
arbitrarily chosen for illustration only). The ADC output waveform that represents the binary codes is also
shown.

The analog-to-digital converter (ADC) converts a continuous-amplitude, continuous-time input to a discrete-

amplitude, discrete-time signal.

1. An analog low-pass (anti-alias) filter limits the input signal bandwidth so that subsequent sampling does not
alias any unwanted noise or signal components into the actual signal band.

2. The filter output signal is sampled at a rate of f, samples per second to produce a discrete-time signal.

3. The amplitude of this discrete-time signal is "quantized," i.e., approximated with a level from a set of fixed
references, thus generating a discrete-amplitude signal.

4. The discrete-amplitude signal is decoded to a digital representation of that level is established at the output.

Conversion process :- There are two related steps in A-to-D conversion.

1. Sampling and holding

• Analog signal is sampled at discrete points in time, usually at periodic interval
• Taking samples from each location, reflects sampled and hold signal.
• Analog voltage sampled at discrete time t is rounded off to nearest discrete voltage value.

Sampling: Sampling is the process of taking a sufficient number of discrete values at points on a waveform
that will define the shape of the waveform. The more samples you take, the more accurately you can define a
waveform. Sampling converts an
analog signal into a series of impulses,
each representing the amplitude of the
signal at a given instant in time. Given
figure illustrates the process of
sampling.

FIGURE: Illustration of the sampling process.

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Notice in Figure that there are two input waveforms. One is the analog signal and the other is the sampling
pulse waveform. The sampling theorem states that, in order to represent an analog signal, the sampling
frequency, fsample, must be at least twice the highest frequency component fa(max) of the analog signal. Another
way to say this is that the highest analog frequency can be no greater than one-half the sampling frequency. The
frequency fa(max) is known as the Nyquist frequency and is expressed in Equation (1). In practice, the sampling
frequency should be more than twice the highest analog frequency.

fsample > 2fa(max)………………………………. Equation (1)

Holding the Sampled Value : The holding operation is the second part of the sample-and-hold function. After
filtering and sampling, the sampled level must be held constant until the next sample occurs. This is necessary
for the ADC to have time to process the sampled value. This sample-and-hold operation results in a “stairstep”
waveform that approximates the analog input waveform, as shown in Figure

FIGURE: Illustration of a sample-and-hold operation.

Quantization
The process of converting an analog value to a code is called quantization. During the quantization process, the
ADC converts each sampled value of the analog signal to a binary code. The more bits that are used to represent
a sampled value, the more accurate is the representation.

To illustrate, let’s quantize a reproduction of the analog waveform into four levels (0–3). Two bits are required
for four levels. As shown in Figure 12–7, each quantization level is represented by a 2-bit code on the vertical
axis, and each sample interval is numbered along the horizontal axis. The sampled data is held for the entire
sample period. This data is quantized to the next lower level, as shown in Table 12–1 (for example, compare
samples 3 and 4, which are assigned different levels).

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 Two-bit quantization for the waveform in Figure

FIGURE : Sample-and-hold output waveform with four

quantization levels. The original analog waveform is shown
in light gray for reference

Types of ADC: I. Flash ADC

II. Successive approximation converter
III. Counter Ramp Converter
IV. Integrating ADC

Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) ) and its conversion method:- Digital-to-analog conversion

is an important part of a digital processing system. Once the digital data has been processed, it is converted back
to analog form.

FIGURE: Digital-to-Analog Converter

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The digital data is processed by a digital processor and output to the digital-to analog converter (DAC). The
DAC reverses the ADC process, it converts a discrete time, discrete amplitude into continuous time, continuous
amplitude. The DAC is usually operated at same frequency as the ADC.

1. A DAC selects and produces an analog level from a set of fixed references according to the digital input. 2. If
the DAC generates large glitches during switching from one code to another, a "deglitching" circuit (usually a
sample-and-hold amplifier) follows to mask the glitches.

3. The reconstruction function performed by the DAC introduces sharp edges in the waveform as well as a sine
envelope in the frequency domain, an inverse-sine filter and a low-pass filter are required to suppress these
effects. The resulting staircase-like signal is finally passed through a smoothing filter to ease the effects of
quantization noise.

Note: The deglitcher may be removed if the DAC is designed to have small glitches. Also, the inverse sine
filtering may be performed before DAC conversion in the digital domain.

Methods: there are two popular methods for DAC.

I. Binary-Weighted-Input Digital-to-Analog Converter

II. The R/2R Ladder Digital-to-Analog Converter

Binary-Weighted-Input Digital-to-Analog Converter:-

One method of digital-to-analog conversion uses a resistor network with resistance values that represent the
binary weights of the input bits of the digital code. Figure shows a 4-bit DAC of this type. Each of the input
resistors will either have current or have no current, depending on the input voltage level. If the input voltage is
zero (binary 0), the current is also zero. If the input voltage is HIGH (binary 1), the amount of current depends
on the input resistor value and is different for each input resistor, as indicated in the figure.

FIGURE: A 4-bit DAC with binary-weighted inputs.

Since there is practically no current into the op-amp inverting (-) input, all of the input currents sum together
and go through Rf . Since the inverting input is at 0 V (virtual ground), the drop across Rf is equal to the output
voltage, so Vout = IfRf

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The values of the input resistors are chosen to be inversely proportional to the binary weights of the
corresponding input bits. The lowest-value resistor (R) corresponds to the highest binary-weighted input (23 ).
The other resistors are multiples of R (that is, 2R, 4R, and 8R) and correspond to the binary weights 22 , 21 , and
20 , respectively. The input currents are also proportional to the binary weights. Thus, the output voltage is
proportional to the sum of the binary weights because the sum of the input currents is through Rf .

Disadvantages of this type of DAC are the number of different resistor values and the fact that the
voltage levels must be exactly the same for all inputs. For example, an 8-bit converter requires eight resistors,
ranging from some value of R to 128R in binary-weighted steps. This range of resistors requires tolerances of
one part in 255 (less than 0.5%) to accurately convert the input, making this type of DAC very difficult to mass-
produce.

The R/2R Ladder Digital-to-Analog Converter:

Another method of digital-to-analog conversion is the R/2R ladder, as shown in Figure for four bits. It
overcomes one of the problems in the binary-weighted-input DAC in that it requires only two resistor values.

FIGURE: An R/2R ladder DAC.

Start by assuming that the D3 input is HIGH (+5 V) and the others are LOW (ground, 0 V). This condition
represents the binary number 1000. A circuit analysis will show that this reduces to the equivalent form shown
in Figure (a). Essentially no current goes through the 2R equivalent resistance because the inverting input is at
virtual ground. Thus, all of the current (I = 5 V/2R) through R7 also goes through Rf , and the output voltage is
-5 V. The operational amplifier keeps the inverting (-) input near zero volts (L0 V) because of negative
feedback. Therefore, all current goes through Rf rather than into the inverting input.

Figure (b) shows the equivalent circuit when the D2 input is at +5 V and the others are at ground. This condition
represents 0100. If we thevenize* looking from R8 , we get 2.5 V in series with R, as shown. This results in a
current through Rf of I = 2.5 V/2R, which gives an output voltage of -2.5 V. Keep in mind that there is no
current into the opamp inverting input and that there is no current through the equivalent resistance to ground
because it has 0 V across it, due to the virtual ground.

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FIGURE: Analysis of the R/2R ladder DAC

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Figure (c) shows the equivalent circuit when the D1 input is at +5 V and the others are at ground. This condition
represents 0010. Again thevenizing looking from R8 , you get 1.25 V in series with R as shown. This results in a
current through Rf of I = 1.25 V/2R, which gives an output voltage of -1.25 V.

In part (d) of Figure 12–30, the equivalent circuit representing the case where D0 is at +5 V and the other
inputs are at ground is shown. This condition represents 0001. The venizing from R8 gives an equivalent of
0.625 V in series with R as shown. The resulting current through Rf is I = 0.625 V/2R, which gives an output
voltage of -0.625 V. Notice that each successively lower-weighted input produces an output voltage that is
halved, so that the output voltage is proportional to the binary weight of the input bits.

DATA TRANSMISSION AND ITS TECHNIQUES

Data transmission is the transfer of data over a medium or channel from one point to one or more points.
Channels can be wire, cable, optical fibers, or wireless. Information (data) transmission falls into two basic
categories, analog and digital. As you know, analog information is transmitted as a continuously varying signal.
Digital data is transmitted either as a sequence of pulses, called baseband transmission, or by modulating an
analog signal, called broadband transmission. Both types are generally considered digital transmission. A
modem is used in broadband modulation and demodulation. Buses are an important part of many data
transmission systems.

All data transmission systems in their most basic form have a data source (sending device) at one end and a
receiving device at the other. The two devices are connected by a transmission medium, which can be wire,
coaxial cable, twisted pair cable, optical fiber cable, or space (wireless)

FIGURE: Basic data transmission system.

Methods: There are mainly two types of transmission process:

I. Serial Data Transmission
II. Parallel Data Transmission

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Parallel Data Transmission:
In Parallel data transmission, multiple data bits are sent at the same time over multiple channels. Each channel
carries one bit at the same time.

Parallel transmission is used when:

• A large amount of data is being sent;

• The data being sent is time-sensitive;

• And the data needs to be sent quickly.

For example- Parallel transmission is used to send data in video streaming. Because video streaming requires
the transmission of large volumes of data. The data being sent is also time-sensitive as slow data streams result
in poor viewer experience.

Advantages :The main advantages of parallel transmission over serial transmission are:

• It is easier to program;

• And data is sent faster.

Disadvantages: However, when several bits are sent simultaneously on separate lines in parallel, slight
differences in the properties of the lines can cause skewing in the data, making the data more susceptible to
error, so the data rate may need to be reduced to prevent errors. Error detection and correction methods can be
used in these cases.

Serial Data Transmission :

In Serial data transmission, data bits are sent one after another over a single channel. Each bit has a clock pulse
rate. Eight bits are transmitted at a time with a start and stop bit known as a parity bit, which is 0 and 1,
respectively. It is viewed as a reliable data transmission method because a data bit is only sent if the previous

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data bit has already been received. It ensures that data integrity is maintained as it transmits the data bits in a
specific order, one after another. In this way, data bits are received in-sync with one another.

FIGURE: Serial Transmission

Serial transmission is used when:
1. Serial transmission is normally used for long-distance data transfer.
2. It is also used in cases where the amount of data being sent is relatively small.
Example: Data is exchanged in Modem, Mouse, etc. in serial data transmission method.
Advantages: It requires only one transmission channel. that means economical.
Disadvantage: Data is sent slower.

Types of Serial Transmission:

There are three types of serial data transmission methods based on bit synchronization and time control.

• Asynchronous Transmission

• Synchronous Transmission

• Isochronous Transmission

Asynchronous Transmission:
In this transmission method one byte data or a character is sent from one device to another with uneven time
interval between two character transfer.

Whenever data is propagated it is sent at once. Thus no memory is required for storing data. Normally a start bit
and a stop bit is added with the data and total 10 bit data is sent. Sometimes a parity bit is added before stop bit
for error checking.

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Data bits can be sent at any time. Stop bits and start bits are used between data bytes to synchronize the
transmitter and receiver and to ensure that the data is transmitted correctly. The time between sending and
receiving data bits is not constant, so gaps are used to provide time between transmissions.

FIGURE: Asynchronous Transmission

Uses- Advantages-

• Computer to Printer • No synchronization is required between the

transmitter and receiver devices. Sender can
• Card reader to computer directly transmit data and the receiver can
• Computer to card reader receive that data.

• Keyboard to computer
• The sender does not require any primary
storage device.

• Cost is very low to impleme

Disadvantages-

• Data transmission speed is very low.

• Efficiency is comparatively less.

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Synchronous Transmission:

In this transmission method data is sent block(chunks or frames) by block from one device to another with even
time interval between two block transfer.

Data is stored in memory before sending to divide it into several blocks. Then it is transmitted block by block
with regular interval. A block consist of several characters (Normally 128, 256, 512, 1024 characters) having
header information (16 bits) at the beginning and trailer information (16 bits) at the end.

FIGURE: Synchronous Transmission

Advantages-
• Efficiency is comparatively very high.
• Speed of data transmission is very high.
• No need to transmit start and stop bit.
• In case of transmitting a lot of data, this method is suitable.

Disadvantages-
• Primary storage device is required.
• Comparatively expensive.
• Synchronization between the source and target is required.

Isochronous Transmission:

Isochronous transmission is similar to synchronous transmission but the time interval between blocks is almost
zero.
In this transmission synchronous and asynchronous data is collected from several devices within a time slot
(125 micro-second) and then passed those collected data as time frame through a synchronous data link one
after another.
Advantages-
• Transmission speed is much higher.
• There is no need to pause between each character.
• Start bit at the beginning of each character and Stop bit at the end is not required.

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Disadvantages-
• A primary storage device is required at the sender station.
• It is not possible to check whether the data block has received the correct recipient and there is no error
correction.
• Relatively expensive.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, data conversion and transmission techniques play a pivotal role in the seamless exchange of
information in our increasingly interconnected world.
The advancements in data conversion technologies, such as analog-to-digital and vice versa, have significantly
enhanced our ability to represent and transmit diverse types of data. These techniques ensure that information
can be faithfully converted and transferred across various mediums, providing the foundation for reliable
communication in both digital and analog domains.

REFERENCES

• Floyed & Jain - Digital Fundamentals - Pearson.

• https://www.edupointbd.com/data-transmission-method-ev/
• https://slideplayer.com/amp/12840534/

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