FAB 412 Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer

Steady and Unsteady States

Steady States

A system is said to be under steady state when all the physical variables remain constant and invariable
along time, at any point of the system.

Unsteady States

A system is said to be under an unsteady state when the characteristic intensive variables of the
operation vary through the system at a given moment and the variables corresponding to each system’s
point vary along time. The physical variables to consider may be mechanical or thermodynamic. Among
the former are volume, velocity, etc., while the thermodynamic variables are viscosity, concentration,
temperature, pressure, etc.

Food Processing Operations

The operations carried out in the industrial processes may be performed in three different ways.

Discontinuous operation

This is an operation in which the raw materials are fed into a processing machine but after performing
the required transformation, the obtained products are unloaded. A semi-continuous operation may
occur by loading some materials in the equipment that will remain there for a given time in a
discontinuous way, while other materials enter or exit continuously. Sometimes it is necessary to unload
those accumulated materials. For example, in the extraction of oil by solvents, Seed flour is loaded and
the solvent is fed in a continuous way; after some time, the flour runs out of oil and must be replaced.

Semi-continuous operation

This operation is also called “batch” or “intermittent” operation, and the steps involved are described
below:

1. Loading of equipment with raw materials

2. Preparation of conditions for transformation

3. Required transformation

4. Unloading products

5. Cleaning equipment

The batch operation takes place under an unsteady state, since its intensive properties vary along time.
An example of this batch process is the crushing of oily seeds to obtain oil.

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Continuous operation

This is an operation in which the loading, transformation, and unloading stages are performed
simultaneously. Equipment cleaning is carried out every given time, depending on the nature of the
process and the materials used. To carry out the cleaning, production must be stopped. Continuous
operations take place under steady state, in such a way that the characteristic intensive variables of the
operation may vary at each point of the system but do not vary along time. It is difficult to reach an
absolute steady state, since there may be some unavoidable fluctuations. An example of a continuous
operation is the rectification of an alcohol–water mixture.

Advantages of continuous operation include:

1. Loading and unloading stages are eliminated.

2. It allows automation of the operation, thus reducing the work force.

3. Composition of products is more uniform.

4. There is better use of thermal energy.

Disadvantages of continuous operation are:

1. Raw materials should have a uniform composition to avoid operation fluctuations.

2. It’s usually expensive to start the operation, so stops should be avoided.

3. Fluctuations in product demand require availability of consider-able quantities of raw materials and
products in stock.

4. Due to automation of operation, equipment is more expensive and delicate.

Momentum Transfer Unit Operations

These operations study the processes in which two phases at different velocities are in contact. The
operations included in this section are generally divided into three groups:

Internal circulation of fluids: study of the movement of fluids through the interior of the tubing; also
includes the study of equipment used to impel the fluids (pumps, compressors, blowers, and fans) and
the mechanisms used to measure the properties of fluids (diaphragms, venturi meters, rotameters, etc.).

External circulation of fluids: the fluid circulates through the external part of a solid. This circulation
includes the flow of fluids through porous fixed beds, fluidized beds (fluidization), and pneumatic
transport.

Solids movement within fluids: the base for separation of solids with-in a fluid. This type of separation
includes: sedimentation, filtration, and ultrafiltration, among others.

Mass Transfer Unit Operations

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These operations are controlled by the diffusion of a component within a mixture. Some of the
operations included in this group are:

Distillation: separation of one or more components by taking advantage of vapor pressure differences.

Absorption: a component of a gas mixture is absorbed by a liquid according to the solubility of the gas in
the liquid. Absorption may occur with or without chemical reaction. The opposite process is called
desorption.

Extraction: based on the dissolution of a mixture (liquid or solid) in a selective solvent, which can be
liquid–liquid or solid–liquid. The latter is also called washing, lixiviation, etc.

Adsorption: also called sorption, adsorption involves the elimination of one or more components of a
fluid (liquid or gas) by retention on the surface of a solid.

Ionic exchange: substitution of one or more ions of a solution with another exchange agent.

Heat Transfer Unit Operations

These operations are controlled by temperature gradients. They depend on the mechanism by which
heat is transferred:

Conduction: in continuous material media, heat flows in the direction of temperature decrease and
there is no macroscopic movement of mass.

Convection: the enthalpy flow associated with a moving fluid is called convective flow of heat.
Convection can be natural or forced.

Radiation: energy transmission by electromagnetic waves. No material media are needed for its
transmission.

Thermal treatments (sterilization and pasteurization), evaporation, heat exchangers, ovens, solar plates,
etc. are studied based on these heat transfer mechanisms.

Simultaneous Mass–Heat Transfer Unit Operations

In these operations a concentration and a temperature gradient exist at the same time:

Humidification and dehumidification: include the objectives of humidification and dehumidification of a

Crystallization: formation of solid glassy particles within a homogeneous liquid phase.

Dehydration: elimination of a liquid contained within a solid. The application of heat changes the liquid,
contained in a solid, into a vapor phase. In freeze-drying, the liquid in solid phase is removed by
sublimation, i.e., by changing it into a vapor phase.

Complementary Unit Operations

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One series of operations is not included in this classification because these are not based on any of the
transport phenomena cited previously. These operations include grinding, milling, sieving, mixing of
solids and pastes, etc.

Mathematical Setup of the Problems

The problems set up in the study of unit operations are very diverse, although in all of them the
conservation laws (mass, energy, momentum, and stochiometric) of chemical reactions apply. Applying
these laws to a given problem is done to perform a balance of the “property” studied in such a problem.
In a general way, the expression of the mass, energy, and momentum balances related to the unit time
can be expressed as:

This is, that which enters into the system of the considered property is equal to that which leaves what
is accumulated. In a schematic way:

In cases where a chemical reaction exists, when carrying out a balance for a component, an additional
generation term may appear. In these cases the balance expression will be:

When solving a given problem, a certain number of unknown quantities or variables (V) are present, and
a set of relationships or equations (R) is obtained from the balances. According to values of V and R, the
following cases can arise:

•If V< R, the problem is established incorrectly, or one equation is repeated.

•If V= R, the problem has only one solution.

•If V> R, different solutions can be obtained; the best solution is found by optimizing the process.

There are

design variables. The different types of problems presented depend on the type of equation obtained
when performing the corresponding balances.

Thus,

•Algebraic equations have an easy mathematical solution obtained by analytical methods.

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•Differential equations are usually obtained for unsteady continuous processes. The solution of the
mathematical model established with the balances can be carried out through analytical or approximate
methods. In some cases, differential equations may have an analytical solution; however, when it is not
possible to analytically solve the mathematical model, it is necessary to appeal to approximate methods
of numerical integration (digital calculus) or graphic (analogic calculus).

•Equations in finite differences are solved by means of analogic computers which give the result in a
graphic form. In some cases the exact solution can be obtained by numerical method

Heat Transfer Modes

There are three types of heat transfer modes and these are listed below:

Conduction: this occurs at the molecular level when a temperature gradient exists in a medium, which
can be solid or liquid. Heat is transferred along the temperature gradient by conduction.

Convection: this happens in a fluid in two mechanism; random molecular motion which is termed
diffusion or the bulk motion fluid which carries energy from place to place. Convection can either be
forced (pushing the flow along a surface through artificial means) or natural (through buoyancy force).

Radiation: it occurs where heat energy is transferred by electromagnetic phenomenon, of which sun is
an important source. It happens between surfaces at different temperatures even there is no medium
between them as long as they face each other.

System of Units

Before looking at the three distinct modes of transfer, it is appropriate to introduce some terms and
units that apply to all of them.

The rate of heat flow will be denoted by the symbol q. It is measured in Watts (W) and multiples such as
(kW) and (MW).

heat flux. This is denoted by 𝖍

Note that,

q
h=
A

Where A is the area through which the heat flows, and that the unit of heat flux (𝖍) is (W/m2).

Naturally, temperatures play a major part in the study of heat transfer. The symbol T will be used to
denote temperature. In SI units, temperature is measured in Kelvin or Celsius: (K) and ( oC). The symbol t
is used for time.

Conduction

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The conductive transfer is of immediate interest through solid materials. However, conduction within
fluids is also important as it is one of the mechanisms by which heat reaches and leaves the surface of a
solid. Moreover, the tiny voids within some solid materials contain gases that conduct heat, albeit not
very effectively unless they are replaced by liquids, an event which is not uncommon. Provided that a
fluid is still or very slowly moving, the following analysis for solids is also applicable to conductive heat
flow through a fluid.

T1 T2<T1

dT
dx

Figure 1: One dimension Conduction

𝖍; heat flow in the x - direction (W)

A: the area through which heat flows in the x – direction (m2)

dT
= the temperature gradient in the x-direction (K/m)
dx

These quantities are related by Fourier's Law, a model proposed as early as 1822:

𝖍=
dT dT q
q=−kA
dx
or h=−k
dx
, where A

A significant feature of this equation is the negative sign. This recognizes that the natural direction for
the flow of heat is from high temperature to low temperature, and hence down the temperature
gradient.

The additional quantity that appears in this relationship is k, the thermal conductivity (W/m K) of the
material through which the heat flows. This is a property of the particular heat-conducting substance
and, like other properties, depends on the state of the material, which is usually specified by its
temperature and pressure. The dependence on temperature is of particular importance. Moreover,
some materials such as those used in building construction are capable of absorbing water, either in
finite pores or at the molecular level, and the moisture content also influences the thermal conductivity.
The units of thermal conductivity have been determined from the requirement that Fourier's law must
be dimensionally consistent.

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Considering the finite slab of material shown in Figure 1, one-dimensional conduction the temperature
gradient is:

dT T 2−T 1
=
dx L

Hence for this situation the transfer law can also be written

T 2−T 1 T 2−T 1
q=−kA or h=−k
L L

Example 1.

Calculate the heat conducted through a 0.2 m thick industrial furnace wall made of fireclay brick.
Measurements made during steady-state operation showed that the wall temperatures inside and
outside the furnace are 1500 and 1100 K respectively. The length of the wall is 1.2m and the height is
1m. Given that the thermal conductivity of the fireclay brick is 1.7 W/m.K

Solution

Assuming that heat conduction through the wall is one dimensional.

T 2−T 1
q=−kA
L

Area A= Lx B= 1.2mx1.0m=1.2m2

Q= 4080W

Determination of Thermal Properties

The specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of the food can be determined as
a function of their proximate compositions by applying additivity principles.

Specific Heat Capacity (Cp) and Thermal Conductivity (K)

The above parameters were determined based on weight fraction of water, fat, ash, protein and
carbohydrate component of food using the equations stated below[10].

C p=1.424 X c +1.549 X p+ 1.675 X f + 0.837 X a +4.187 X w

k =0.58 X w +0.155 X p +0.25 X c +0.16 X f +0.135 X a

Thermal Diffusivity

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This was determined based on weight fraction of water, fat, protein and carbohydrate component of
food using the equation stated below [11].

−6 −6 −6 −6
D=0.146∗10 X w +0.10∗10 X f +0.075∗10 X p + 0.082∗10 X c

X was the fraction of food component, and the subscripts; w, f, p, c and a represented water, fat,
protein, carbohydrate and ash respectively.

Estimation of Thermal Conductivity of Food Products using Choi and Okos method

The thermal conductivity of materials varies with the composition and in some cases the physical
orientation of components. Foods, being of biological origin possess highly variable composition and
structure. The effect of variations in the composition of a material on values of the thermal conductivity
has been reported by Choi and Okos (1987). Their procedure may be used to estimate k from the
composition. k is calculated from the thermal conductivity of the pure component ki and the volume
fraction of each component, Xvi. An important assumption used in this estimation procedure is that the
contribution of each component to the composite thermal conductivity is proportional to the
component volume fraction as follows:

k =⅀ (k i X vi )

The themal conductivity in W/(m.K) of pure water (k w), ice(kic), protein(kp), fat(kf),
carbohydrate(kc),fibre(kfi), and ash (ka) are calculated at the temperature, T in oC, using equations
described below:

kw=0.57109+0.0017625 T−6.7306×10−6T2

kic =2.2196−0.0062489 T+1.0154×10−4T2

kp=0.1788+0.0011958 T−2.7178×10−6T2

kf =0.1807−0.0027604 T−1.7749×10−7T2

kc =0.2014+0.0013874 T−4.3312×10−6T2

kfi=0.18331+0.0012497 T−3.1683×10−6T2

ka =0.3296+0.001401 T−2.9069×10−6T2

The volume fraction Xvi of each component is determined from the mass fraction X i, the individual
densities ρi, and the composite density ρ as follows:

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 Xi ρ
X vi=
ρi

The individual densities, in kg/m 3, are obtained using equations stated below respectively, for water
(ρw), ice (ρic), protein (ρp), fat(ρf), carbohydrate (ρc), fiber (ρfi), and ash (ρa).

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ρ=

[ ⅀
( )]
Xi
ρi

ρw = 997.18+0.0031439 T−0.0037574 T2

ρic = 916.89−0.13071 T

ρp= 1329.9−0.51814 T

ρf = 925.59−0.41757 T

ρc = 1599.1−0.31046 T

ρfi= 1311.5−0.36589 T

ρa = 2423.8−0.28063 T

Example 2.

Calculate the thermal conductivity of lean pork containing 7.8% fat, 1.5% ash, 19% protein, and 71.7%
water, at 19◦C.

Solution:

With the use of spread sheet, the composite thermal conductivity is 0.4970 W/m.K

Example 3.

Calculate the thermal conductivity of milk which contains 87.5% water, 3.7% protein, 3.7% fat, 4.6%
lactose, and 0.5% ash, at 10◦C.

Solution:

With the use of spread sheet, the composite thermal conductivity is 0.5473 W/m.K

Fourier’s Second Law of Heat Transfer

When the rate of heat transfer across a solid is not uniform (i.e., there is a difference in the rate at which
energy enters and leaves at a control volume), this difference will be manifested as a rate of change of
temperature with time, within the control volume. This type of problem is called unsteady state heat
transfer. Figure 2 shows a control volume for analyzing heat transfer into a cube with sides dx, dy, and

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dz. The following are heat balance equations across the control volume in the x, y and z directions.
Partial differential equations are used since in each case only one direction is being considered.

Figure 2: Control volume for analysis of heat transfer into a cube

The difference in the first derivatives divided by dx, dy, or dz is a second derivative, therefore:

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The last equation above represents Fourier’s second law of heat transfer. The rate of change of
temperature with time at any position within a solid conducting heat is proportional to the second
derivative of the temperature with respect to distance at that particular point.

Relationship between the thermal properties

k
α=
ρC

𝛼= thermal diffusivity(m2/s)

ρ= density of the material (Kg/m3)

C= specific heat capacity of the material(J/Kg.K)

The thermal diffusivity indicates the ability of a material to transfer thermal energy relative to its ability
to store it. The diffusivity plays an important role in unsteady conduction.

Temperature Profile for Unidirectional Heat Transfer Through a Slab

If heat is transferred under steady-state conditions, and A is constant along the distance, x, the
temperature gradient, dT/dx will be constant, and integration of Equation q / A=−k ¿) will result in an
expression for temperature as a linear function of x. Substituting the boundary conditions, T=T 1 at

x=x1, in equation stated below:

q
A
T = . x +C
k

Substituting the boundary condition, T=T1 at x=x1 in equation stated above

q
A
T = .( x1−x )+T 1
k

Equation stated above is the expression for the steady-state temperature profile in a slab where A is
constant in the direction of x. The temperature gradient, which is constant in a slab transferring heat at
a steady state, is equal to the ratio of the heat flux to the thermal conductivity. If the temperature at
two different points in the solid is known (i.e., T=T1 at x=x1 and T=T2 at x=x2).

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The equation becomes:

q
A
T 1−T 2 = .(x 1−x 2)
k

q dT
=−k
A dx

q
q dT
Substituting Equation =−k in Equation A
A dx T = .( x1−x )+T 1
k

−dT
T= .(x 1−x )+T 1
dx

Example 7.3.

Thermocouples embedded at two points within a steel bar, 1 and 2 mm from the surface, indicate
temperatures of 100◦C and 98◦C, respectively. Assuming no heat transfer occurring from the sides,
calculate the surface temperature.

Solution:

Because the thermal conductivity is constant, equation stated below can be used

−dT
T= .(x 1−x )+T 1
dx

Following the convention on signs for the temperature and distance differences, T2=98, T1=100, x 2=2
mm and x1=1 mm. The temperature gradient dT/dx= (T 2−T1)/(x2−x1)=(98−100)/0.001(2−1)= −2000. The
equation becomes:

T=−(−2000)(x1−x)+T1

At the surface, x=0, and at point x1=0.001, T1=100. Thus:

T=2000(0.001)+100= 102◦C

Conduction Heat Transfer Through Walls of a Cylinder

When heat flows through the walls of a cylinder, the area perpendicular to the direction of heat flow
changes with position A at any position within the wall is the surface area of a cylinder of radius r, and it
may be expressed as:

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 dT
q=−k (2 πrL)
dr

When hear transfer occurs in a steady state, q is constant

−dr 2 πLk
= dT
r q

After integration and substitution of the boundary conditions: at r=r 1, T=T1 and at r=r2, T=T2, the resulting
equation for the rate of heat transfer expressed in equation stated below.

T 1−T 2
q=
[ ln ( r 2 /r 1 ) /2 ]
The Temperature Profile in the Walls of a Cylinder in Steady-State Heat Transfer

At any point r, the temperature T may be obtained from the above Equation by substituting r for r 2 and

T for T2

ln ( r /r 1 ) q
T= +T 1
2 πLk

T 1−T 2
Substituting equation q= for q in the above equation
[ ln ( r 2 /r 1 ) /2 ]
ln ( r /r 1 )
T= ( T 1−T 2 ) +T 1
ln ( r 2 /r 1 )

OR

( T −T 1 ) ( T 1−T 2 )
=
ln ( r /r 1 ) ln ( r 2 /r 1 )

If the wall of the cylinder consists of layers having different thermal conductivities, the temperature
profile may be obtained using the same procedure used above

( T −T ) ( T 1−T 2 ) q
=
( ) = 1 ln
()
1 r r2 2 πL
ln
k2 r k1 r1

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The temperatures T1and T2must transect a layer bounded by r 1 and r2, which has a uniform thermal
conductivity k1. Similarly, the layer bounded by r and r` where the temperatures are T and T` must also
have a uniform thermal conductivity, k2.

Convection

Convection heat transfer occurs both due to molecular motion and bulk fluid motion. Convective heat
transfer may be categorized into two forms according to the nature of the flow: Natural and forced
convection.

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Natural Convection

In natural convection, the fluid motion is driven by density differences associated with temperature
changes generated by heating and cooling. In other words, fluid flow is influenced by buoyancy forces.
Thus the heat transfer itself generates the flow which conveys energy from the points that heat transfer
occurs.

Forced Convection

In forced convection, the fluid motion is driven by some external influence. Examples are:

(1) The flows of air induced by a fan, wind or motion of a vehicle.

(2) The flow of water within heating, cooling, supply and drainage system.

In all of these processes, the moving fluid conveys energy whether by the design or inadvertently.

Figure 1-2: Illustration of the process of convective heat transfer

The left of Figure 1.2 illustrates the process of natural convective heat transfer. Heat flows from the
‘radiator’ to the adjacent air, which then rises, being lighter than the general body of air in the room.
This air is replaced by cooler, somewhat denser air drawn along the floor towards the radiator. The
rising air flows along the ceiling, to which it can transfer heat, and then back to the lower part of the
room to be recirculated through the buoyancy-driven ‘cell’ of natural convection. The word ‘radiator’
has been written above in that way because the heat transfer from such devices is not predominantly
through radiation; convection is important as well. In fact, in a typical central heating radiator
approximately half the heat transfer is by (free) convection. The right part of Figure 1.2 illustrates a
process of forced convection. Air is forced by a fan carrying with it heat from the wall if the wall
temperature is lower or giving heat to the wall if the wall temperature is lower than the air

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temperature. If T1 is the temperature of the surface receiving or giving heat, and T ∞ is the average
temperature of the stream of fluid adjacent to the surface, then the convective heat transfer q is
governed by Newton’s law:

q
q=h c A(T 1−T 2) or =hc (T 1−T 2)
A

Another empirical quantity has been introduced to characterize the convective transfer mechanism. This
is hc, the convective heat transfer coefficient, which has units [W/m2 K]. This quantity is also known as
the convective conductance and as the film coefficient. The term film coefficient arises from a simple,
but not entirely unrealistic, picture of the process of convective heat transfer at a surface. Heat is
imagined to be conducted through a thin stagnant film of fluid at the surface, and then to be convected
away by the moving fluid beyond.

The film coefficient is not a property of the fluid, although it does depend on a number of fluid
properties: thermal conductivity, density, specific heat and viscosity. This single quantity subsumes a
variety of features of the flow, as well as characteristics of the convecting fluid. Obviously, the velocity
of the flow past the wall is significant, as is the fundamental nature of the motion, that is to say,
whether it is turbulent or laminar. Generally speaking, the convective coefficient increases as the
velocity increases. A great deal of work has been done in measuring and predicting convective heat
transfer coefficients. Nevertheless, for all but the simplest situations we must rely upon empirical data,
although numerical methods based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) are becoming increasingly
used to compute the heat transfer coefficient for complex situations.

Table 1.3 gives some typical values; the cases considered include many of the situations that arise within
buildings and in equipment installed in buildings.

Example

A refrigerator stands in a room where the air temperature is 20 oC. The surface temperature on the
outside of the refrigerator is 16oC. The sides are 30 mm thick and have an equivalent thermal
conductivity of 0.1 W/m K. The heat transfer coefficient on the outside is 10 W/m 2K.

Assuming one dimensional conduction through the sides, calculate the net heat flow and the surface
temperature on the inside.

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Solution

Let Tsi and Tso be the inside surface and outside surface temperatures, respectively and T f the fluid
temperature outside. The rate of heat convection per unit area can be calculated from Equation stated
above:

q=h c A(T so−T f )

W 2
q=10.0 2
x 1.0 m (289 K −293 K)
m K

This must equal the heat conducted through the sides. Thus we can use Equation described below to
calculate the surface temperature

q=−40.0W

( T so−T si )
q=−kA
L

W 2 (289 K −T si )
−40.0W =−0.1 x 1.0 m
mK 0.03 m
o
T si =277 K∨4 C

Radiation

Conductive and convective transfers involve the flow of energy through a solid or fluid substance, no
medium is required to achieve radiative heat transfer. Electromagnetic radiation travels most efficiently
through a vacuum, it is able to pass quite effectively through many gases, liquids and through some
solid, in particular, relatively thin layers of glass and transparent plastics. It is vital to realise that
everybody, unless at the absolute zero of temperature, both emits and absorbs energy by radiation. In
many circumstances the inwards and outwards transfers nearly cancel out, because the body is at about
the same temperature as its surroundings. This is your situation as you sit reading these words,
continually exchanging energy with the surfaces surrounding you. In l884 Boltzmann put forward an
expression for the net transfer from an idealised body (Black body) with surface area A1 at absolute
temperature T1 to surroundings at uniform absolute temperature T2:

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 q
q=σ A 1 ¿) or =σ ¿)
A

With σ the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, which has the value 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4 and T [K] = T

[oC] + 273 is the absolute temperature.

The bodies considered above are idealised, in that they perfectly absorb and emit radiation of all
wavelengths. The situation is also idealised in that each of the bodies that exchange radiation has a
uniform surface temperature. A development of Boltzmann's law which allows for deviations from this
pattern is

q=ɛσ F12 A 1 ¿ )

With ɛ the emmisivity, or emmitance of the surface A1, a dimensionless factor in the range 0 to 1.

F12 is the view factor,or angle factor,giving the fraction of the radiation from A 1 that falls on the area A2
at temperature T2, and therefore also in the range of 0 to 1.

Another property of the surface that is implicit in the relationship is the absorptivity. This has been
taken to be equal to emmisivity, but not always realistic. For example, a surface receiving short wave
length radiation from the sun may reject some of that energy by re-radiation in a lower band of
wavelengths, for which the emmisivity is different from the absorptivity for the wavelengths received.

The case of solar radiation provides an interesting application of this equation. The view factor of the
Sun, as seen from the Earth, is very small; despite this, the very high solar temperature (raised to the
power 4) ensures that the radiative transfer is substantial. Of course, if two surfaces do not see each
other( for instance, when the Sun is on the other side of the Earth),the view factor is zero. Table below
shows values of the emmisivity of various materials. The values quoted in the table are averages over a
range of radiation wavelengths

An ideal emitter or collector is referred to as a black body, while a surface with an emmisivity less than
unity is referred to as grey.

Representative values of emmisivity

Ideal black body 1.00 Aluminium paint 0.5

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 White paint 0.97 Galvanised steel 0.3
Gloss paint 0.9 Stainless steel 0.15
Brick 0.9 Aluminium foil 0.12
Rusted steel 0.8 Polished copper 0.03
Perfect mirror 0

Although it depends upon a difference in temperature, Boltzmann's Law does not have the precise form
of the laws for conductive and convective transfers. Nevertheless, we can make the radiation law look
like the others. We introduce a radiative heat transfer coefficient or radiative conductance through

q=h r A 1 (T 1−T 2 )

Comparison with the developed form of the Boltzmann Equation, plus a little algebra, gives

q 2 2
hr = =ɛσ F 12 ( T 1+ T 2 ) (T 1 +T 2)
A 1 (T 1−T 2 )

If the temperatures of the energy-exchanging bodies are not too different, this can be approximated by

3
hr =4 ɛσ F 12 T av

Where Tav is the average of the two temperatures.

Obviously, this simplification is not applicable to the case of solar radiation. However, the temperatures
of the walls, floor and ceiling of a room generally differ by only a few degrees. Hence the approximation
given by Equation stated above is adequate when transfers between them are to be calculated.

Example

Surface A in the Figure is coated with white paint and is maintained at temperature of 200 oC. It is
located directly opposite to surface B which can be considered a black body and is maintained at
temperature of 800oC. Calculate the amount of heat that needs to be removed from surface A per unit
area to maintain its constant temperature.

Solution

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Two surfaces are assumed to be infinite and close to each other that they are only exchanging heat with
each other. The view factor can be assumed to be 1.

The heat gained by surface A by radiation from surface B can be established using the equation stated
below:

q=ɛσ F12 A 1 ¿ )

=-71469W/m2

STEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER

The Concept of Resistance to Heat Transfer

Equation derived from Fourier’s first law, shows that in a steady-state system the quantity of heat
passing through any part of the system must equal that passing through any other part and equal the
total passing through the system. The problem of heat transfer through multiple layers can be analyzed
as a problem involving a series of resistance to heat transfer. The transfer of heat can be considered as
analogous to the transfer of electrical energy through a conductor ∆T is the driving force equivalent to
the voltage E in electrical circuits. The heat flux q is equivalent to the current, I.

Ohm’s law for electrical circuits is

The resistance to heat transfer is X/k and is the “R” rating used in the insulation industry to rate the
effectiveness of insulating materials. For multilayered materials in the geometry of a slab where A is
constant in the direction of increasing x, the overall resistance to heat transfer is the sum of the
individual resistance in series, and:

20
Therefore:

For heat transfer through a cylinder, taking resistance into consideration;

For resistances in series:

Combined Convection and Conduction: The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

Most problems encountered in practice involve heat transfer by combined convection and conduction.
Usually, the temperatures of fluids on both sides of a solid are known and the rate of heat transfer
across the solid is to be determined. Heat transfer involves convective heat transfer between a fluid on
one surface, conductive heat transfer through the solid and convective heat transfer again at the

21
opposite surface to the other fluid. The rate of heat transfer may be expressed in terms of U, the overall
heat transfer coefficient, or in terms of R, an overall resistance. Consider a series of resistances involving
n layers of solids and n fluid to surface interfaces. The thermal conductivity of the solids are
k1...k2...k3...kn and the heat transfer coefficients are h 1...h2...hn with subscript n increasing along the
direction of heat flow.

For a slab:

Because A is the same across the thickness of a slab:

If the A used as a multiplier for U is the outside area, then U=U o the overall heat transfer coefficient
based on the outside area. Ui =overall heat transfer coefficient based on the inside area. Using h i = inside
heat transfer coefficient and ho=outside heat transfer coefficient; r i and ro are inside and outside radius
of the cylinder, respectively.

22
Example. Calculate the rate of heat transfer across a glass pane that consists of two 1.6-mm-thick glass
separated by 0.8-mm layer of air. The heat transfer coefficient on one side that is at 21◦C is 2.84
W/(m2·K) and on the opposite side that is at−15◦C is 11.4 W/(m 2·K). The thermal conductivity of glass is
0.52 W/(m·K) and that of air is 0.031 W/(m·K).

Solution:

When stagnant air is trapped between two layers of glass, convective heat transfer is minimal and the
stagnant air layer will transfer heat by conduction. There are five resistances to heat transfer. R 1 is the
convective resistance at one surface exposed to air, R 2 is the conductive resistance of one 1.6-mm-thick
layer of glass, R3 is the conductive resistance of the air layer between the glass, R 4 is the conductive
resistance of the second 1.6 mm thick layer of glass, and R 5 is the convective resistance of the opposite
surface exposed to air.

Example. (a) Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient for a 1-in. (nominal) 16-gauge heat exchanger
tube when the heat transfer coefficient is 568 W/(m 2K) inside and 5678 W/(m2·K) on the outside. The

23
tube wall has a thermal conductivity of 55.6 W/(m·K). The tube has an inside diameter of 2.21 cm and a
1.65 mm wall thickness. (b) If the temperature of the fluid inside the tube is 80◦C and 120◦C on the
outside, what is the inside wall temperature?

HEAT EXCHANGE EQUIPMENT

Heat exchangers are equipment for transferring heat from one fluid to another. In its simplest form a
heat exchanger could take the form of a copper tube exposed to air, where fluid flowing inside the tube
is cooled by transferring heat to ambient air. When used for transferring large quantities of heat per unit
time, heat exchangers take several forms to provide for efficient utilization of the heat contents of both
fluids exchanging heat, and to allow for compactness of the equipment. The simplest heat exchanger to

24
make is one of tubular design. Heat exchangers commonly used in the food industry include the
following. Swept surface heat exchangers:The food product passes through an inner cylinder and the
heating or cooling medium passes through the annular space between the inner cylinder and an outer
cylinder or jacket. A rotating blade running the whole length of the cylinder continuously agitates the
food as it passes through the heat exchanger and at the same time, continuously scrapes the walls
through which heat is being transferred (the heat transfer surface). This type of heat exchanger can be
used to heat, cool or provide heat to concentrate viscous food products. Figure 7.11 shows a swept
surface heat exchanger. Double pipe heat exchanger:This heat exchanger consists of one pipe inside
another. The walls of the inner pipe forms the heat transfer surface. This type of heat exchanger is
usually built and installed in the field.

A major disadvantage is the relatively large space it occupies for the quantity of heat exchanged,
compared to other types of heat exchangers. Figure 7.12 shows a double pipe heat exchanger. Shell and
tube heat exchanger: This heat exchanger consists of a bundle of tubes enclosed by a shell. The type of
head arrangement allows for one tube pass or multiple passes for the product. In a one-pass
arrangement, the product enters at one end and leaves at the opposite end. In a multipass
arrangement, the product may travel back and forth through different tubes with each pass before
finally leaving the heat exchanger. The heat exchange mediums on the outside of the tubes are usually
distributed using a system of baffles. Figure 7.13 shows two types of shell-and-tube heat exchanges.
Plate heat exchanger: This type of heat exchanger was developed for the dairy industry. It consists of a
series of plates clamped together on a frame. Channels are formed between each plate. The product

25
and heat transfer medium flow through alternate channels. Because of the narrow channel between the
plates, the fluid flows at high velocities and in a thin layer resulting in very high heat transfer rates per
unit heat transfer surface area. The plate heat exchanger is mostly used for heating fluids to
temperatures below the boiling point of water at atmospheric pressure. However there are units
designed for high temperature service is commercially available. Plate heat exchangers are now used in
virtually any application where tubular heat exchangers were previously commonly used. Newer designs
have strength to withstand moderate pressure or vacuum. A major limitation is the inability to handle
viscous liquids. Figure 7.14 shows a plate heat exchanger.

26
The Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference

Refer to Fig. 7.15 for the diagram and the representation of the symbols used in the following
derivation. If the ∆T changes linearly along the length of the heat exchanger relative to the temperature
of one of the fluids, the slope of the line representing ∆T vs TB is

Rearranging:

27
The amount of heat transferred across any point in the exchanger is

This heat transferred will cause a rise in product temperature, dTB, and can be also expressed as:

Equating:

Substituting the expression for dTB:

Rearranging:

Integrating:

The limits are such that at the entrance of fluid B into the heat exchanger, ∆T=∆T 1 and A=0 at this point.
When fluid B leaves the heat exchanger, ∆T=∆T 2 and A=A the total heat transfer area for the heat
exchanger.

28
When heat is exchanged between two liquids or between liquid and gas, the temperature of both fluids
will be changing as they travel through the heat exchanger. If both fluids enter on the same end of the
unit, flow will be in the same direction and this type of flow is con-current. Countercurrent flow exists
when the fluids flow in opposite direction through the unit. True countercurrent or concurrent flow
would occur in double pipe, plate, and multiple tube single pass shell and tube heat exchangers. When
true con-current or countercurrent flow exists, the rate of heat transfer can be calculated by:q

The log mean temperature difference is evaluated between the inlet and exit ∆T values. In multipass
heat exchangers, the fluid inside the tubes will be traveling back ad forth across zones of alternating
high and low temperatures. For this type of heat exchangers, a correction factor is used on the ∆T L. The
correction factor depends upon the manner in which shell fluid and tube fluid pass through the heat
exchanger.

where F is the correction factor. The reader is referred to a heat transfer textbook or handbook for
graphs showing correction factors to ∆T for multipass shell an tube heat exchangers.

Example. Apple sauce is being cooled from 80◦C to 20◦C in a swept surface heat exchanger. The overall
coefficient of heat transfer based on the inside surface area is 568 W/m 2· K. The apple sauce has a
specific heat of 3187 J/kg·K and is being cooled at the rate of 50 kg/h. Cooling water enters in
countercurrent flow at 10◦C and leaves the heat exchanger at 17◦C. Calculate:(a) the quantity of cooling
water required; (b) the required heat transfer surface area for the heat exchanger.

29
30
Mass Transfer

In the area of food technology, mass transfer phenomena play an important role in many applications,
including (1) water (liquid or vapor) in products and air in drying or similar operations, such as osmotic
dehydration; (2) aroma components in products during drying and storage; (3) extraction/ coagulation
(sugar, tea, coffee); (4) salt in products (meat, cheese); and (5) gas and liquid permeation through
packaging materials and membranes. The transfer of water is the dominant phenomenon, and most of
this chapter is concerned with this and related problems. The terms “mass transfer” and “diffusion” are
sometimes used without distinction. This is not correct. Mass transfer may take place in several modes,
only one of which is diffusion. These different transfer modes are sometimes treated in the same way as
diffusion mathematically (Fick’s law), despite the fact that this is not correct from a phenomenological
point of view. In such cases the corresponding coefficient is called the apparent or effective diffusion
coefficient.

Principles and Theory of Diffusion

Diffusion is the process by which matter is transported from one part of a system to another as a result
of random molecular motion. Despite the fact that no molecule has a preferred direction of motion, a
transfer of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration is
observed: as the number of molecules is higher in the former region, more molecules will pass toward
the region of lower concentration than in the opposite direction. Fick defines the diffusion coefficient by
means of the concentration gradient.

(1)

In the thermodynamic approach, the molar diffusion velocity of a component A is defined in terms of
the chemical potential µc:

(2)

Where vA, x is the linear velocity of component A related to a fixed coordinate and V x is the velocity of
the bulk. Then the molar flux of A becomes

31
 (3)

Introducing

(4)

gives

(5)

This equation also gives the dimensions of D:m 2/sec. Equation 4 is valid, of course, when the activity
coefficient ɣ is equal to 1, that is, for dilute/ideal solutions.

For non stationary conditions, Equation 5 leads to

(6)

For diffusion in all three directions,

(7)

If DA is related to cA,

(8)

This defines ordinary diffusion. However, if A is diffusing into another component, B, B is simultaneously
diffusing into A. This is called mutual or binary diffusion. It can be shown that

32
 (9)

So far, a plane of no net molar transfer is assumed as the section defining D. If this section is moving,
due to bulk transport or volume change related to the mixing process, the total flow in relation to fixed
coordinates is given by

(10)

Where NA is the flow of A in relation to fixed coordinates, J A is diffusive flow, and x A (NA+NB) is the part of
A in the bulk flow. By means of labeled molecules it is possible to measure the diffusion of one
component, A, in a uniform system, AB; this is termed self-diffusion, D AA. Tracer-diffusion (also called
intradiffusion) refers to diffusion of very small amounts of component A into another component B, or in
a mixture AB: D∗A.

If in Equation 2, the flux is used instead of velocities, then an interesting alternative approach arises,
defining the so-called mass conductivity, LA:

(11)

Combining equations 1 and 11 and using the chain property:

(12)

This leads to a relationship between the DA and the LA

(13)

(Isothermal notation is followed here for emphasis.)

33
If, now, we use the molar fraction X instead of the concentration C, C= ρX, Equation 13 becomes
analogous to the well-known heat transfer properties α = λ/Cp relationship

(14)

The derivative in the denominator is closely related to the sorption isotherm if A is the water contained
in a food.

Water and Water Vapor in Porous

Knudsen Diffusion (DK)

The mean-free path of the molecules is long compared with the pore diameter (in general, negligible for
pore diameters greater than 0.1µm).

Ordinary or Binary Diffusion (DAB)

The mean-free path of the molecules is much less than the pore diameter. The transition region
between Knudsen and ordinary diffusion is defined by

(15)

Stephan Diffusion

Diffusion of vapor through a layer of stagnant air (e.g., water evaporating from a wet surface into bulk
air [i.e., convective drying]):

(16)

A surface transfer coefficient may be defined:

34
 (17)

Hydraulic Flow

(18)

Laminar Flow

(19)

Where d is the pore diameter and ν is the viscosity. Turbulent flow is seldom reached, due to the very
small pore diameter.

Condensation Evaporation

Closed pores partially filled with water are subjected to a temperature gradient. Water is vaporized at
the end of the pore with the higher temperature and condenses at the opposite end. Liquid water is
transferred back along the wall of the pore.

Water

Capillary Flow

Surface Diffusion: Surface diffusion is the transfer of water molecules adsorbed onto the wall in the
pores.

Hydraulic Flow

Components: Components dissolved in water.

Effective or apparent diffusion coefficient:

35
 (20)

Where ∈ porosity and τ is the tortuosity factor (τ =le/l, where le is the effective average path

length, l is the shortest distance).

Vapor Diffusion in Stagnant air (Stephan Diffusion)

The following equation was given for a binary system:

(21)

A and B are diffusing into each other simultaneously. Suppose that A is water vapor leaving the surface
of a moist material (drying) and diffusing into an air boundary layer (B) (Figure 7.3) The air is not moving
perpendicular to the surface, and accordingly, NB=0

(22-23)

VAPOR DIFFUSION IN STAGNANT AIR (STEPHAN DIFFUSION)

The following equation was given for a binary system:

(24)

A and B are diffusing into each other simultaneously. Suppose that A is water vapor leaving the surface
of a moist material (drying) and diffusing into an air boundary layer (B)

The air is not moving perpendicular to the surface, and accordingly, NB=0

36
 (25-26)

cA is expressed here as density. However, in this problem it is better to measure the concentration of
water vapor either as mole fraction (xA)or as partial pressure (pw)

(27-34)

37
Here NA is expressed in kmol/m2·sec. Multiplication by the molecular weight of water gives the result in
kg/m2·sec. We note here, in advance, that Equation 34 is remarkably analogous to the film theory
equation regarding the phenomenon of concentration polarization.

MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

Calculation of mass transfer coefficients is in most cases based on empirical results. By means of
dimensional analysis, equations can be derived for different situations.

Usually, the exponent of the Sc number is 1/3, independent of the type of flow. The exponent of the
Reynold number is usually 1/3 for laminar flow and 0.8 for turbulent flow in a circular tube or a flat
channel. Turbulent flow through a circular tube or a flat channel was examined by Gekas and Hallström
in two subsequent papers in The Journal of Membrane Science (1987, 1988). Their remarks are not only
applicable to the membrane area.

Laminar flow through a circular tube:

38
39