CURRENT ELECTRICITY

CHAPTER – 3

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
0 0 0 1
“The flow of charge in a definite direction constitutes the Dimension: (M L T A )
electric current and the time rate of flow of charge through any If n electrons pass through any cross section in every t second
cross-section of a conductor is the measure of current”. 𝑛𝑒
then i = , where e = 1.6 × 10–19 coulomb.
The electric current in measured by the 'rate of flow of charge'. 𝑡
Charge flowing per second from any cross-section of the 1 ampere of current means the flow of 6.25 × 1018 electrons per
conductor is called electric current, second through any cross-section of the conductor
𝐶ℎ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑒 𝑑𝑞 𝑞 Direction of the flow of current is taken to be opposite to the
Current i = = , if flow is uniform =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑡 𝑡
direction of the flow of electrons.
Unit: Ampere (A)
Value of the current is same throughout the conductor,
1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second.
irrespective of the cross-section of conductor at different points.
i.e., if 1 coulomb of charge flows per second then 1 ampere of
Net charge in a current-carrying conductor is zero at any instant
current is said to be flowing.
of time.

Note
A current-carrying conductor cannot have said to be charged, because in conductor the current is caused by electron (free
electron). The no. of electron (negative charge) and proton (positive charge) in a conductor is same. Hence the net charge
in a current carrying conductor is zero.

𝑣
(k) Electric field outside a current carrying conductor is zero, but it is non zero inside the conductor and is given by e = –
𝑙

Note
The electric field inside charged conductor is zero, but it is non zero inside a current carrying conductor
Electric current is a scalar quality Although in diagrams, we represent current in a wire by an arrow but the arrow simply
indicates the direction of flow of positive charges in the wire
 Note
Though electric current needs direction for its representation, yet it is scalar quantity. It is because, the current can be added
algebraically. Only scalar quantities can be added algebraically not the vector quantities

Did YOU KNOW?

Electricity travels at the speed of light! That is more than 186000 miles per second!

Q. How much current is present when 107 electrons per second run through a conducting wire?
𝑛
Sol. Flow of electrons, = 107 /second
𝑡
𝑞 𝑛𝑒 𝑛
Therefore, current(𝐼) = = = × 𝑒
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
= 107 × (1.6 × 10−19 ) = 1.6 × 10−12 A
Current density Note
The current density at a point in a conductor is the ratio
of the current at that point in the conductor to the area The speed of random motion of electrons is
of cross–section of the conductor of that point. determined by temperature and is given by
1 3 3𝑘𝑇
i mv2 = kT v = ට
It is denoted by j i.e., j = 2 2 𝑚
A
where m is mass of electron, T is absolute temp. and k
i = Electric current A = Area of cross-section.
is Boltzmann’s constant.
Note (h) Electrons collide with the ions of metal while
Area 'A' is normal to current 'I'. If A is not normal to I, moving. The average time–interval between two
but makes an angle q with the normal to current, then successive collisions is called relaxation–time,
denoted by t.
The relations between relaxation time (t) and drift
→
𝑒𝐸𝜏
velocity (vd) are given =–
𝑚

Ohm’s law
𝐼 𝐼 If there is no change in the physical state of a conductor (Such as
j= =
𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 temperature) then the ratio of the potential difference applied
at its ends and the current flowing through it is constant i.e.
 I = j A cos q = . I

J=

V
 2 × 106 A/m2  200 A/cm2 VI or V = I R;
It is a VECTOR quantity Its direction is the direction of where, R is a constant. This is called 'Electrical resistance' of the
motion of the positive charges at that point. conductor.
Units: ampere / meter2 (A/m2) This is true for metallic conductors only which have free
Dimension: [M0L–2T0A] electrons.
If, n = number of free electrons per unit volume of The law is not applicable for ionized gases, transistors, semi–
conductor. conductors etc.
A = cross sectional area of conductor I I
vd = Drift velocity. then
(a) (b) Diode
I = neA vd and J = ne vd
V V
I
Drift velocity: An applied potential difference does not I Semi
conductor
give an accelerated motion to electrons but simply (d) Torch
(c) Bulb
gives them a small constant velocity (» 10–4 m/s) along
V V
the length of wire towards the end at higher potential.
This is called Drift velocity of the electrons. Units of resistance: ohm ()
1 ohm = 1 volt / 1 ampere.
Dimensions of resistance: [M1L2T–3A–2] Note
If, L = length of conductor
R = resistance of the conductor
A = cross-sectional area of conductor perpendicular to (a) If a conductor is stretched to n times of its original
current length, it's new resistance will be n2 times the
1 original
Then, R  L, R 
𝐴 (b) if x% of change is brought in length of a wire, it's
𝐿
 R=
𝐴 resistance will change by 2x%. This is true for x < 5
This constant of proportionality r is called 'Resistivity' or 'Specific only.
resistance'. (c) If a conductor is stretched such that it's radius is
Significance of Ohm’s Law: reduced to 1/nth of its original values, then
Ohm’s law is obeyed by many substances, but it is not a resistance will increase n4 times similarly
fundamental law of nature. It fails if resistance will decrease n4 times if radius is
(a) V depends on I non- linearly. An example is when ρ increases increased n times by compression –
with I (even if the temperature is kept fixed).
(b) The relation between V and I depend on the sign of V for the
same absolute value of V. Effect of temperature on resistance:
(c) The relation between V and I is non-unique. For e.g., GaAs Rt
An example of (a) & (b) is a rectifier
When a source of emf (ε) is connected to an external resistance
R, the voltage Vext across R is given by R0
𝜀
𝑉𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝐼𝑅 = 𝑅 O t0C
𝑅+𝑟
Where r is the internal resistance of the source. Rt = R0 (1 + a Dt)
Effect of stretching a wire on its resistance 0
where, Rt = Resistance at t C.
𝑅1 ℓ2
If the length of wire is changed, then
𝑅2
= ℓ2
1
R0 = Resistance at 0 C
0
2
𝑅1 𝑟 4
If the radius of wire is changed, then
𝑅2
= ( 2)
𝑟1
t = change in temperature.
Units of  = Ohm–meter a = Temperature coefficient of resistance at 0º C
= +ve for metals.
Dimensions of  = [M1 L3 T–3 A2]
= –ve for semiconductors and insulators.
If T = Temperature in kelvin R = R0 (1 +  (T – T0) where R0
= 0 for alloys.
= Resistance at temp. T0 and a = thermal coefficient of (b) R2 = R1 [1 + a (t2 – t1)]. This formula gives an approximate
resistance so, as T increases → R increases. value.
Resistivity is also defined as the ratio of the intensity of the (c) Resistance of the conductor decreases linearly with
electric field E at any point within the conductor and the temperature and becomes zero at a specific temperature.
𝐸
current density j at that point  = or j  E This temperature is called critical or transition temperature,
𝑗
Resistivity is' characteristic property of the material of the conductor becomes a super conductor at this temperature.
conductor. It does not depend upon length area etc. of the (d) There is no loss of energy in a circuit formed by super
conductor. Although it depends on temperature. It conductors. Current passed in loop formed by
increases with increase in temperature superconductor will continue flowing for infinite time if
Value of resistivity is least for conductors and most for there is no resistance in the loop.
insulators.
Inverse of resistivity is called conductivity of wire denoted DO YOU KNOW?
1
by ()  = Just 50mA across your heart can kill you. That’s
𝜌
Conductance: Inverse of resistance is known as equivalent to 9V battery.
conductance (Mho)

Q. A 6-volt battery is connected to the terminals of a three-meter-long wire of uniform thickness and resistance of
100 ohm. Then find the difference of potential between two points on the wire separated by a distance of 50 cm
𝑙 3 ρ 100
Sol. According to given parameters in question 𝑅 = ρ ⇒ 100 Ω = ρ ⇒ =
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 3
ρ 100 50
Thus, total resistance of 50 cm wire is 𝑅1 = 𝑙 = × 0.5 = Ω.
𝐴 3 3
6
The total current in the wire is 𝐼 = A.
100
Therefore, potential difference across the two points on the wire separated by a distance of 50 m is
50 6
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅1 = × =1V
3 100
 Q. A wire 50 cm long and 1 mm2 in cross-section carries a current of 4 A when connected to a 2 V battery. Find the
resistivity of the wire.
Sol. Length (𝑙) = 50 cm = 0.5 m;
Area (𝐴) = 1 mm2 = 1 × 10−6 m2 ;
Current (𝐼) = 4𝐴 and voltage (𝑉) = 2 volts.
𝑉 2
Resistance(𝑅) = = = 0.5 Ω
𝐼 4
𝐴 1×10−6
Resistivity(ρ) = 𝑅 × = 0.5 × = 1 × 10−6 Ω m
𝑙 0.5

Combinations of Resistance (b) Parallel combination:

(a) Series Combination i1 R1
R1 R2 R3
i2 R2
A B
V1 V2 V3
i3
I
R3
V V
Same current passes through each resistance. There is same drop of potential across each resistance.
Voltage across each resistance is directly Current in each resistance is inversely proportional to the
proportional to its value. value of resistance i.e.
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 i1 = , i2 = , i3 = etc.
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Sum of the voltages across resistances is equal to the Current flowing in the circuit is sum of the currents in
voltage applied across the circuit i.e., individual resistances i.e.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + .............. i = i1 + i2 + i3,
V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + .............. 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
i= + + + ........
𝑉 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
= R1 + R2 + R3 + .................. 𝑖 1 1 1 1
𝐼  𝑉
=
𝑅
=
𝑅1
+
𝑅2
+
𝑅3
+ ....
= R Where, R = equivalent resistance.
where R = equivalent resistance.
For a series combination of two resistances The equivalent resistance of parallel combination is lower
R1 R2 than the value of lowest resistance in the combination.
For a parallel combination of two resistances....
R1
i1
i
V
i2 R2
(A) equivalent resistance R = R1 + R 2
(B) I = V / (R1 + R2)
𝑅1 𝑉
(C) V1 (voltage across R1) = IR1 =
𝑅1 +𝑅2
𝑅2 𝑉 V
(D) V2 (voltage across R2) = IR2 =
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑉(𝑅1 +𝑅2 )
(i) i = i1 + i2 =
𝑅1 𝑅2
Comparative study of combination of resistor and capacitor-
Sr.No Resistor Capacitor
In series In parallel In series In parallel
(i) R 1 R 2 R3 i1 R1 +q +q +q C1
C1 C2 C3 +q1
V1 V2 V3 –q1
A i2 R2
B V1 V2 V3 +q2C2
I –q2 B
(ii) A
C3
(iii) + – i3 1 1 1 1 +q3 –q3
E R3 = + +
+ – 𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 V
(iv) R = R1 + R 2 + R 3 1 1 1 1 V = V1 + V 2 + V 3
= + + C = C 1 + C2 + C3
V = V1 + V 2 + V 3 𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 Charge is equal in all
(v) V1 = V2 = V3 = V V1 = V2 = V
Current is same in capacitors
Currents through If n cap. is in series Different capacitor
all the resistances
(vi) different but p.d. across then C' = C/n diff. charge.
If n resistances,
 each of value R are all of them is the same If n capacitor is
connected in series If n resistances each Effective capacitance connected in parallel
then R' = nR of value R are is less than smallest C' = nC
Effective resistance connected in parallel, capacitor in the Effective capacitance
is greater than the then R' = R/n combination is greater than the
highest resistance Effective resistance is largest capacitor in the
in the combination less than the smallest combination
resistance in the
combination
Kirchhoff law (ii) When current is drawn through the cell or current is
Kirchhoff in 1842 gave two laws for solving complicated supplied to cell then, the potential difference across
electrical circuits. These laws are as follows– its terminals is called terminal voltage.
(a) First law: (iii) When i current is drawn from cell, then terminal
In an electrical circuit, the algebraic sum of the current voltage is less than it's emf E.
meeting at any junction in the circuit is zero. V=E–ir
OR E r
Sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to sum
of the currents leaving the junction Where V = terminal voltage, r = internal resistance of
Si = 0 battery
i1 – i2 – i3 – i4 + i5 = 0 (iv) When current is supplied to the cell, the terminal
or i1 + i5 = i2 + i3 + i4 voltage is greater than the emf E i.e., V = E + i r
(v) Units of both emf and terminal voltage are volt.
Note
Combinations of cells:
This law is based on law of conservation of charge. In
E1 r 1 E2 r 2 E3 r3
other words, when a steady current flows in a circuit
then there is neither accumulation of charge at point
in the circuit nor any charge is removed from there. i

(b) Second law: In a 'closed' mesh of a circuit the algebraic

sum of the products of the current R
and the resistance in each part of the mesh is equal to the
algebraic sum of the e.m.f.'s in that mesh. i.e. (a) Series Combination:
SiR = SE Equivalent emf E = E1 + E2 + E3 .........

In applying this law, when we traverse in the direction of Direction of emf is taken into consideration.
current then the product of the current and the Equivalent internal resistance r is given by
corresponding resistance is taken as positive, and the emf r = r1 + r2 + r3 .............
is taken as positive when we traverse from the negative 𝐸 𝛴𝐸𝑖
Current, i = =
to the positive electrode of the cell through the 𝑟+𝑅 𝛴𝑟𝑖 +𝑅

electrolyte. For maximum current, R = Sr

This law is based on 'law of conservation of energy'. i.e. The load resistance must be equal to the equivalent
internal resistance.
Electric Cell If all emf are equal (E), then for series combinations of n
(a) Electro Motive Force (EMF): The potential difference 𝑛𝐸
such cells, I =
across the terminals of a cell when it is not giving any 𝑅+𝑛𝑟
𝐸
current is called EMF of the cell. Cases: (a) if nr >> R, I =
𝑟
or 𝑛𝐸
(b) If nr << R, I =
The energy given by the cell in the flow of unit charge 𝑅
(c) Cells are employed in series only when internal
in the whole circuit (including the cell) is called the
resistance is less than the load resistance.
EMF of the cell.
𝑊 (b) Parallel Combination:
E=
𝑄 Equivalent internal resistance,
(b) Terminal voltage: 1 1 1
r is + + +. . . . . . ..
(i) The resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell to 𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟2
the flow of current through it is called internal Equivalent emf
resistance of the cell.
 E1 r1 The configuration in the adjacent figure is called wheat
i E2 r2 stone bridge.
E3 r3 If ig = 0 i.e., current in galvanometer is zero, then bridge is
E4 r4
said to be balanced.
R P R
𝐸
For ig = 0 (i) VD = VB (ii) =
𝐸1 𝐸2 𝐸3 Q S
+ + +........ ∑ 𝑖
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑖
𝐸= 1 1 1 = 1 Equivalent resistance in balanced condition
+ + +......... ∑
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑖
(𝑃+𝑄)(𝑅+𝑆)
E =
𝑃+𝑄+𝑅+𝑆
Current, i =
R+r P R
E If < then VB > VD and current will flow from B to D.
r Q S
P R
If > , the VB < VD and current will flow from D to B.
Q S
Meter bridge and post office box work on this principle.
R Electric energy and power
When all 'n' cells with emf E and internal resistance r each, are Electric energy:
connected in parallel, When a potential difference is applied across a wire, current
then equivalent emf = E, starts flowing in it. The free electrons collide with the positive
r ions of the metal and lose energy. Thus, energy taken from the
equivalent internal resistance =
n battery is dissipated. The battery constantly provide energy to
𝐸 𝑛𝐸 continue the motion of electron and hence electric current in the
In this (5) case I = 𝑟 =
𝑅+ 𝑛𝑅+𝑟
𝑛 circuit. This energy is given to ions of the metal during collision
Cases: and thus temperature of wire rises. Thus, energy taken from the
𝐸
(a) If r << nR, I = battery gets transferred in to heat. This energy is called electrical
𝑅
𝑛𝐸 energy. This effect is also called 'Heating Effect of Current'.
(b) If r >> nR, I =
𝑟
(c) This combination is used only when load resistance is lower R = Resistance of wire
than internal I = Current in wire
resistance. V = Potential difference across wire.
Flow of charge in 'dt' time = Idt.
(c) Mixed combination:
𝑚𝑛𝐸 Energy dissipated dW = Vdq = VIdt,
i= , For maximum current Q V = IR,
𝑚𝑅+𝑛𝑟
Internal resistance = External resistance 𝑉2
dW = VIdt = I2Rdt = dt = Vdq this energy is equal to work done
nr 𝑅
i.e. R = by battery or heat produced in the wire.
m If energy is to be written in calorie–
n cells 𝑑𝑊
Then dW = cal = 24 dW cal
E E 4.2
E
r E
When dW is energy in Joules.
r E r
E
i r r r Electrical power:
E E E
The rate of loss of energy in an electrical circuit is called electrical
r E r E r
E m cells power. It is denoted by 'P'
r r r 𝑑𝑊 𝑉2
𝑃= = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 𝐼𝑉 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
R units of power = joule/sec, watt, horse power
Wheat-stone bridge 1 watt = 1 joule/sec, 1 HP = 746 watt
B unit of electrical energy = watt second, kilowatt hour
i1–ig
P Q 1 kilowatt hour (kwh) = 36 × 105 Joule
ig
i1
A i2 G C Combination of electrical instruments–
R S If 220V and 40W is written on an electrical instrument then this
i2+ig is called its standard Ratings. It means that if 220V is applied
i = i1 + i2 D i across this instrument then 40W of power will be generated.
E 𝑉2 (220)
+ – Thus, the resistance will be given by 𝑅 = = 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑃 40
Series combination Net power dissipation P = P1 + P2 + P3
V1,P1 V2,P2 V3,P3 Bulb with least power will glow least or the bulb in which
maximum current is flowing will glow brightest and vice–
versa.
Note
E
(a) These formulae are applicable only if the voltage
If total power dissipated if P,
1 1 1 1 ratings of all the instruments are equal along
then, = + + , with the power source. If voltage ratings are
𝑃 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3
Where P'1 are standard powers of instrument different then circuit is solved by considering
In this combination, the bulb with least power will glow equivalent resistances of the instruments as
most and bulb with highest power will glow least or we follows
can say that bulb with highest R will glow brightest and (b) Replace the instrument by its's equivalent
bulb with least R will glow least. resistance. If standard rating is (V/P) then its
resistance is
Parallel combination
V1, P1 R = V2/P
(c) Find the currents and voltages in different
V2,P2 branches using Kirchhoff’s first and second laws.
(a) If rating of a bulb is changed from V1/P1 to V2/P2
V3,P3
then
𝑉12 𝑉22 𝑉2
= = R or P2 = 22 P1
E 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑉1

Q. Two cities are 150 km apart. Electric power is sent from one city to another city through copper wires. The fall of
potential per km is 8 volt and the average resistance per km is 0.5 Ω. Find the power loss in the wire.
Sol. Here,
Distance between two cities = 150 km
Resistance of the wire,
𝑅 = (0.5 Ω km−1 )(150 km) = 75 Ω
Voltage drops across the wire,
𝑉 = (8 V km−1 )(150 km) = 1200 V
Power loss in the wire is
𝑉2 (1200 𝑉)2
𝑃= = = 19200 W = 19.2 kW
𝑅 75 Ω

Q. A 4 μF capacitor is charged to 400 V. If its plates are joined through a resistance of 2 kΩ, then find the amount of
heat produced in the resistance.
Sol. Capacitance (𝐶) = 4 μF = 4 × 10−6 F; Voltage (𝑉) = 400 volts and resistance (𝑅) = 2 kΩ = 2 × 103 Ω
1
Heat produced = Electrical energy stored = 𝐶𝑉 2
2
1
= × (4 × 10−6 ) × (400)2 = 0.32 J.
2
• Electrical Conductivity: (b) Insulators like glass and rubber have high resistivity:
It is the inverse of specific resistance for a conductor Range of ρ varies from 1022 to 1024 times greater than
whereas the specific resistance is the resistance of unit that of metals.
cube of the material of the conductor. (c) Semiconductors like Si and Ge lie roughly in the
1 ne2 middle range of resistivity on a logarithmic scale.
= = • Total resistance in Series and in Parallel
 m
(a) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in series is
Where σ is the conductivity and ρ is resistivity. given by R = R1 + R2 + … + Rn
• SI Unit of Conductivity: (b) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in parallel
The SI unit of conductivity is mho m-1. is given by
• Current through a given area of a conductor: 1 1 1 1
= + +. . . . . . +
It is the net charge passing per unit time through the area. 𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛
• Current Density Vector: • If the mass of a charge carrier is large, then for a given
The current density vector 𝑗⃗ gives current per unit area field 𝐸⃗⃗ , its acceleration will be small and will contribute
flowing through area ∆A when it is held normal to the very little to the electric current.
direction of charge flow. Note that the direction of 𝑗⃗ is in • Electrical Conductivity:
the direction of current flow. When a conducting substance is brought under the
• Current Density:
influence of an electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ , free charges (e.g. free
Current density j gives the amount of charge flowing per
electrons in metals) move under the influence of this field
second per unit area normal to the flow.
in such a manner, that the current density 𝑗⃗ due to their
J = nqVq
motion is proportional to the applied electric field.
where n is the number density (number per unit volume)
𝑗⃗ = σ 𝐸⃗⃗
of charge carriers each of charge q and vd is the drift
velocity of the charge carriers. For electrons q = –e. If j is
normal to a cross – sectional area A and is constant over
the area, the magnitude of the current I through the area
is d neVdA.
• Mobility:
Mobility µ is defined to be the magnitude of drift velocity
per unit electric field.
𝑉
𝜇 = ( 𝑑) where σ is a constant of proportionality called electrical
𝐸
𝑞𝜏𝐸 conductivity. This statement is one possible form of
Now, 𝑉𝑑 =
𝑚𝑞 Ohm’s law.
where q is the electric charge of the current carrier and • Consider a cylindrical material with cross sectional area A
mq is its mass. and length L through which a current is passing along the
𝑞𝜏
∴𝜇=( ) length and normal to the area A, then, since 𝑗⃗ and 𝐸⃗⃗ are
𝑚𝑞
in the same direction,
Thus, mobility is a measure of response of a charge carrier
J = σE
to a given external electric field.
JAL = σELA
• Resistivity: Where A is cross sectional area and L is length of the
Resistivity ρ is defined to be reciprocal of conductivity. material through which a current is passing along the
1
𝜌= length, normal to the area A. But, JA = I, the current
𝜎
It is measured in ohm-metre (Qm). through the area A and EL = V1 - V2, the potential
difference across the ends of the cylinder denoting V1-V2
• Resistivity as a function of temperature:
as V,
It is given as, 𝐼𝐿
ρT = ρ0 [1 + α(T – T0)] 𝑉 = = 𝑅𝐼
𝜎𝐴
𝐿
Where α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity and Where 𝑅 = is called resistance of the material. In this
𝜎𝐴
ρT is the resistivity of the material at temperature T. form, Ohm's law can be stated as a linear relationship
• Ranges of Resistivity: between the potential drop across a substance and the
(a) Metals have low resistivity: Range of ρ varies from current passing through it.
10–8 Ω m to 10–6 Ω m. • Measuring resistance:
1𝑉
R is measured in ohm ((Ω)), where 1𝛺 =
𝐴
 𝑅1 𝑅3
• EMF: ∴ =
𝑅2 𝑅4
Emf (Electromotive force) is the name given to a non-
This is also known as the balanced condition. If R1, R2, R3
electrostatic agency. Typically, it is a battery, in which a
are known, R4 can be determined.
chemical process achieves this task of doing work in 𝑅
driving the positive charge from a low potential to a high 𝑅4 = ( 2 ) 𝑅3
𝑅1
potential. The effect of such a source is measured in terms • In a balanced condition of the meter bridge,
of work done per unit charge in moving a charge once 𝑅 𝑃 𝜎𝑙1
= =
𝑆 𝑄 100−𝑙1
around the circuit. This is denoted by ∈. 1 𝑆𝑙
∴ 𝑅 = (100−𝑙
• Kirchhoff's First Rule: 1)

At any junction of several circuit elements, the sum of Where σ is the resistance per unit length of wire and l1 is
currents entering the junction must equal the sum of the length of wire from one end where null point is
currents leaving it. obtained.
In the above junction, current I enters it and currents I 1 • Potentiometer:
and I2 leave it. Then, The potentiometer is a device to compare potential
I = I1 + I2 differences. Since the method involves a condition of no
This is a consequence of charge conservation and current flow, the device can be used to measure potential
assumption that currents are steady, that is no charge differences; internal resistance of a cell and compare
piles up at the junction. emf’s of two sources.
• Kirchhoff's Second Rule: • Potential Gradient:
The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any The potential gradient of the wire in a potentiometer
closed resistor loop must be zero. This is based on the depends on the current in the wire.
principle that electrostatic forces alone cannot do any • If an emf ∈1 is balanced against length l1, then ∈ = ρl1
work in a closed loop, since this work is equal to potential Similarly, if ∈2 is balanced against l2, then ∈2 = ρl2
difference, which is zero, if we start at one point of the The comparison of emf’s of the two cells is given by,
loop and come back to it. ∈ 𝑙
∴ 1= 1
• Wheatstone Bridge: ∈2 𝑙2
Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistances
R1, R2, R3, R4. The null point condition is given by,
 PRACTICE EXERCISE
Q8. An electric current is passed through a circuit containing
MCQ two wires of the same material, connected in parallel. If
4 2
the lengths and radii are in the ratio of and , then the
2 3
Q1. When 5V potential difference is applied across a wire of ratio of the current passing through the wires will be
length 0.1 m, the drift speed of electrons is 2.5  10-4 ms- (a) 8/9 (b) 1/3
1
. If the electron density in the wire is 8  1028 m-3, the (c) 3 (d) 2
resistivity of the material is close to: Q9. In a meter bridge experiment null point is obtained at 20
(a) 1.6  10-6 Ωm (b) 1.6  10-5 Ωm cm. from one end of the wire when resistance, X is
(c) 1.6  10 Ωm-8
(d) 1.6  10-7 Ωm balanced against another resistance Y. If X < Y, then where
Q2. The length of a wire of a potentiometer is 100 cm, and the will be the new position of the null point from the same
e.m.f. of its standard cell is E volt. It is employed to end, if one decides to balance a resistance of 4 X against
measure the e.m.f. of a battery whose internal resistance Y
is 0.5Ω. If the balance point is obtained at ℓ = 30 cm from (a) 40 cm (b) 80 cm
the positive end, the e.m.f. of the battery is (c) 50 cm (d) 70 cm
30𝐸 30𝐸
(a) (b) (100−0.5) Q10. Find emf E of the cell as shown in figure.
100.5
30(𝐸−0.5𝑖) 30𝐸
(c) (𝑑)
100 100
Q3. n equal resistors are first connected in series and then
connected in parallel. What is the ratio of the maximum
to the minimum resistance?
(a) n (b) 1/n2
2
(c) n (d) 1/n
(a) 15V (b) 10V
Q4. Shown in the figure below is a meter-bridge set up with (c) 12V (d) 5V
null deflection in the galvanometer.
Q11. In a given network, each resistance has value of 6Ω. The
point X is connected to point A by a copper wire of
negligible resistance and point Y is connected to point B
by the same wire. The effective resistance between X and
Y will be

The value of the unknown resistor R is

(a) 13.75Ω (b) 220Ω (a) 18 Ω (b) 6 Ω
(c) 110Ω (d) 55Ω (c) 3 Ω (d) 2 Ω
Q5. In the equation AB = C, A is the current density, C is the Q12. Cell having an emf ε and internal resistance r is connected
electric field, Then B is across a variable external resistance R. As the resistance
(a) resistivity (b) conductivity R is increased, the plot of potential difference V across R
(c) potential difference (d) resistance is given by:
Q6. You are given a resistance coil and battery. In which of the
following cases the largest amount of heat generated?
(a) When the coil is connected to the battery directly
(b) When the coil is divided into two equal parts and
both the parts are connected to the battery in
parallel
(c) When the coil id divided into four equal parts and all
the four parts are connected to the battery in parallel
(d) When only half the coil is connected to the battery
Q7. On increasing the temperature of a conductor, its
resistance increases because the Q13. If voltage across a bulb rated 220 Volt-100 Watt drops by
(a) relaxation time increases
2.5% of its rated value, the percentage of the rated value
(b) mass of electron increases
by which the power would decrease is:
(c) electron density decreases
(a) 20% (b) 2.5%
(d) relaxation time decreases
(c) 5% (d) 10%
Q14. Two resistance R1 and R2 are made of different materials. Q21. A potentiometer is an accurate and versatile device to
The temperature coefficient of the material of R1 is α and make electrical measurement of EMF because the
that of material of R2 is – β. The resistance of the series method involves
combination of R1 and R2 will not change with (a) potential gradients
𝑅
temperature if 1equal to (b) a condition of no current flow through the
𝑅2
𝛼 𝛼+𝛽 galvanometer
(a) (b)
𝛽 𝛼−𝛽 (c) a combination of cells, galvanometer and resistance
𝛼 2 +𝛽 2 𝛽
(c) (d) (d) cells
2𝛼𝛽 𝛼
Q22. Which of the following characteristics of electrons
Q15. Potentiometer wire of length 1 m is connected in series
determines the current in a conductor?
with 490Ω resistance and 2 V battery. If 0.2 mV/cm is the
(a) Drift velocity alone
potential gradient, then resistance of the potentiometer
(b) Thermal velocity alone
wire is
(c) Both drift velocity and thermal velocity
(a) 4.9Ω (b) 7.9Ω
(d) Neither drift nor thermal velocity
(c) 6.9Ω (d) 6.9Ω
Q16. See the electric circuit shown in the figure Which of the Q23. Temperature dependence of resistivity 𝜌(T) of
following equations is a correct semiconductors insulators and metals is significantly
equation for it? based on the following factors
(a) Number of charge carriers can change with
(a) ε 2 − i2 r2 − 1 − i1 r1 = 0
temperature T.
(b) − 2 − ( i1 + i2 ) R + i2 r2 = 0 (b) Time interval between two successive collisions can
(c) 1 − ( i1 + i2 ) R + i1 r1 = 0 depend on T.
(c) Length of material can be a function of T.
(d) 1 − ( i1 + i2 ) R − i1 r1 = 0 (d) Option (a) and (b)
Q17. If an ammeter is to be used in place of a voltmeter, then Q24. Kirchhoff’s junction rule is a reflection of
we must connect with the ammeter a (a) conservation of current density vector.
(a) low resistance in parallel (b) conservation of charge and the fact that there is no
(b) high resistance in parallel accumulation of charged at a junction.
(c) the fact that the momentum with which a charged
(c) high resistance in series
particle approaches a junction is unchanged (as a
(d) low resistance in series.
vector) as the charged particle leaves the junction.
Q18. A d.c. main supply of e.m.f. 220 V is connected across a (d) none of the above
storage battery of e.m.f. 200 V through a resistance of 1Ω.
Q25. What is the order of magnitude of the resistance of a dry
The battery terminals are connected to an external
human body?
resistance ‘R’. The minimum value of ‘R’, so that a current
(a) 10 Ω
passes through the battery to charge it is:
(b) 104 Ω
(a) 7Ω
(c) 10 MΩ
(b) 9Ω
(d) 10 μΩ
(c) 11Ω
(d) zero
ASSERTION AND REASONING
Q19. Suppose the drift velocity vd in a material varied with the
applied electric field E as vd  E . Then V – I graph for Directions: These questions consist of two statements, each
a wire made of such a material is best given by: printed as Assertion and Reason. While answering these
questions, you are required to choose any one of the following
four responses.
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and the Reason is a
correct explanation of the Assertion.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason is not a
correct explanation of the Assertion.
(c) If the Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
Q20. An energy source will supply a constant current into the (d) If both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
load if its internal resistance is
Q1. Assertion: A larger dry cell has higher emf.
(a) very large as compared to the load resistance
Reason: The emf of a dry cell is proportional to its size.
(b) equal to the resistance of the load
(c) non-zero but less than the resistance of the load Q2. Assertion: A current continues to flow in
(d) zero superconducting coil even after switch is off.
 Reason: Superconducting coils show Meissner effect. (ii) (ii) Y decreases the value of resistance S in the set up.
Q3. Assertion: Voltmeter is connected in parallel with the How would these changes affect the position of the
circuit. null point in each case and why?
Reason: Resistance of a voltmeter is very large.
Q4. Assertion: Ohm’s law is applicable for all conducting
elements.
Reason: Ohm’s law is a fundamental law.
Q5. Assertion: An electric bulb becomes dim, when the
electric heater in parallel circuit is switched on.
Reason: Dimness decreases after sometime.

VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS Q5. Show, on a plot, variation of resistivity of (i) a conductor,
and (ii) a typical semiconductor as a function of
Q1. Define electrical conductivity of a conductor and give its temperature. Using the expression for the resistivity in
SI unit. On what factors does it depend? terms of number density and relaxation time between the
Q2. Plot a graph showing variation of current versus voltage collisions, explain how resistivity in the case of a
for the material GaAs. conductor increases while it decreases in a
semiconductor, with the rise of temperature.
Q3. Graph showing the variation of current versus voltage for
a material GaAs is shown in the figure. Identify the region
of
Q1. Draw a circuit diagram showing balancing of Wheatstone
bridge. Use Kirchhoff’s rules to obtain the balance
condition in terms of the resistances of four arms of
Wheatstone Bridge.
Q2. Using the principle of Wheatstone Bridge, describe the
method to determine the specific resistance of a wire in
the laboratory. Draw the circuit diagram and write the
formula used. Write any two important precautions you
(i) negative resistance (ii) where Ohm’s law is obeyed. would observe while performing the experiment.
Q4. The emf of a cell is always greater than its terminal
voltage. Why? Give reason. NUMERICAL TYPE QUESTIONS
Q5. Two materials Si and Cu, are cooled from 300 K to 60 K. Q1. Find the equivalent resistance between A and C.
What will be the effect on their resistivity? B
R R
RR R
A C
R
Q1. Define the terms (i) drift velocity, (ii) relaxation time. R R
Q2. (a) You are required to select a carbon resistor of D
resistance 47 kΩ ± 10% from a large collection. What Q2. In the adjoining network of resistors, each is of resistance
should be the sequence of color bands used to code r ohm, then what will be the equivalent resistance
it? between points A and B?
(b) Write the characteristics of manganin which make it b
suitable for making standard resistance.
Q3. Answer the following: r r
r
(a) Why are the connections between the resistors in a AB
a
meter bridge made of thick copper strips? r
(b) Why is it generally preferred to obtain the balance d r c
point in the middle of the meter bridge wire?
(c) Which material is used for the meter bridge wire and Q3. observe the following fig. ans find the ratio of current in
why? 3W and 1W resistances?
I1 
Q4. Two students X and Y perform an experiment on 
potentiometer separately using the circuit diagram 3A
X Y Z
shown here. Keeping other things unchanged.
(i) X increases the value of resistance R. I 2 6
Q4. Determine the resultant resistance between the points A
and B in the following diagram.
1 1
5
C E 1 G 1 3 4
A 1

2 2 2 1 2

B
D F H
Q8. A heating–coil of 2000 watt is immersed in an electric
Q5. A galvanometer together with an unknown resistance in
kettle. Find the time taken in raising the temperature of 1
series is connected across two identical batteries of each
liter of water from 4°C to 100°C. (Only 80% part of the
1.5 V. When the batteries are connected in series, the
thermal energy produced is used in raising the
galvanometer records a current of 1 A and when the
temperature of water.)
batteries are connected in parallel, the current is 0.6 A.
Find the internal resistance of the battery. Q9. A 10 m long nichrome wire having 80W resistance, has
current carrying capacity of 5 A. What is the power which
Q6. What is the value of steady current in 2W resistance in
can be obtained as heat by the wire from a 200 V mains
the following circuit diagram.
supply? If the wires are cut in two equal parts and
i1 2
connected in such a way that it gives maximum power.
What is the arrangement to obtain maximum power?
i
Q10. In a circuit shown, the galvanometer G reads zero. If
3 batteries have negligible internal resistances, find the
i2 value of resistance X.
4 500 b
a G c
0.2F
2.8 + 12V +
+ – X 12V
6V
Q7. In the fig below the bulbs are identical, which bulb(s), f e d
light(s) most brightly?
 HOMEWORK QUESTIONS
you are required to choose the correct one out of the given four
MCQ responses and mark it as: -
(a) if both assertion and reason are true and reason is the correct
Q1. The rate of flow of electric charge through any cross-section explanation of the assertion.
of a conductor is known as __________. (b) if both assertion and reason are true but reason is not correct
(a) Electric flux (b) Electric potential explanation of the assertion.
(c) Electric current (d) Electric field (c) if assertion is true, but reason is false.
Q2. Mobility is denoted by __________. (d) if both assertion and reason are false.
(a) 𝜇 (b) 𝜎 Q1. Assertion: Electric current and velocity of light both have
(c) 𝜌 (d) 𝛾 direction as well as the magnitude but still they are not
Q3. Which of the following is non-ohmic resistance? considered as vectors.
(a) Lamp filament (b) Copper wire Reason: Electric current and velocity of light do not follow
(c) Carbon resistor (d) Diode the laws of vector addition.
Q2. Assertion: Drift velocity of electrons is independent of time
Q4. Current density is a __________.
Reason: Electrons are accelerated in the presence of
(a) scalar quantity. (b) vector quantity.
electric field
(c) dimensionless quantity. (d) none of these options
Q3. Assertion: Insulators do not allow flow of current through
Q5. The opposition offered by the electrolyte of the cell to
themselves.
the flow of current through itself is known as
Reason: They have no free charge carriers
__________.
(a) External resistance (b) Internal resistance Q4. Assertion: The tyres of aircraft are slightly conducting.
(c) Non-resistance (d) None of these options Reason: If a conductor is connected to ground, the extra
Q6. The resistivity of certain metals or alloys drops to zero charge induced on conductor will flow to ground
when they are cooled below a certain temperature, this Q5. Assertion: The coulomb force is the dominating force in
phenomenon is known as __________. the universe.
(a) Conductivity (b) Partial conductivity Reason: The coulomb force is weaker than the
(c) Superconductivity (d) non-conductivity gravitational force.
Q7. In the following fig. the ratio of current in 3W and 1W
VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
resistances is–
I1 
 Q1. Distinguish between emf and terminal voltage of a cell.
3A
X Y Z Q2. Two wires one of manganin and the other of copper have
I 2 6 equal length and equal resistance. Which one of these
1 2 wires will be thicker?
(a) (b) (c) 1 (d) 2
3 3
Q3. Why are alloys used for making standard resistance coils?
Q8. A 220 volt 100-watt bulb is connected to a 110-volt
source. The power consume by the bulb will be – Q4. Why do we prefer a potentiometer to measure the emf of
(a) 25 W (b) 20 W a cell rather than a voltmeter?
(C) 484 W (d) 120 W Q5. What is the advantage of using thick metallic strips to join
Q9. According to Ohm’s law wires in a potentiometer?
(a) V is directly proportional to I
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
(b) V is inversely proportional to I
(c) V is directly proportional to R
(d) V is inversely proportional to R Q1. (a) Draw a graph showing the variation of current versus
Q10. A heating–coil of 2000 watt is immersed in an electric voltage in an electrolyte when an external resistance
kettle. The time taken in raising the temperature of 1 liter is also connected.
of water from 4ºC to 100ºC will be– (Only 80% part of the (b) The graph between resistance (R) and temperature (T)
thermal energy produced is used in raising the for Hg is shown in the figure. Explain the behavior of
temperature of water.) Hg near 4K.
(a) 252 s (b) 250 s (c) 245 s (d) 247 s

ASSERTION AND REASONING

Directions: In the following questions, statement of assertion is

followed by a statement of reason. While answering a question,
Q2. (a) State the principle of working a potentiometer. Q5. The voltmeter shown in fig, reads 6V across the 60 Ω
(b) Write two possible causes for one sided deflection in resistor. Then find the resistance of the voltmeter.
the potentiometer experiment.
Q3. State the underlying principle of a potentiometer. Write
two factors by which current sensitivity of a
potentiometer can be increased. Why is a potentiometer
preferred over a voltmeter for measuring the emf of a
cell? Q6. Find the value of shunt required for 10% of main current
to be sent through the moving coil galvanometer of
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS resistance 99Ω.
Q7. A voltmeter can measure upto 25 volt and its resistance
Q1. Draw the circuit diagram of a potentiometer which can is 1000 Ω. Then find the value of resistance required to
be used to determine the internal resistance of a given add with voltmeter to measure upto 250 volt.
cell of emf (E). Describe a method to find the internal
resistance of a primary cell. Q8. Consider the circuit shown in the figure. Then what is the
value of current I3 ?

NUMERICAL TYPE QUESTIONS

Q1. Three equal resistors connected in series across a source of

emf together dissipate 10 watts of power. What would be
the power dissipated if the same resistors are connected
in parallel across the same source of emf Q9. If 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = 4 V in the given figure, then determine the
Q2. An electric motor whose resistance is 2 ohms is started with value of resistance X.
a supply of 110 volt. It takes 10 ampere current at its full
speed. Find the electric power consumed and part of the
power used in mechanical work.
Q3. Three 4V batteries, internal resistances 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3
are connected in parallel and in series with a 2.045-ohm
resistor. Find
Q10. In the given circuit find the value of current I1 .
(a) equivalent resistance of the circuit
(b) equivalent voltage.
Q4. There are 8.4 × 1022 free electrons per cm3 in copper. The
current in the wire is 0.21 A (e = 1.6 × 10–19 C). Then find
the drifts velocity of electrons in a copper wire of 1 mm2
cross section.
 PRACTICE EXERCISE SOLUTIONS
4 4 4 4 𝑅
MCQ 𝑅𝐶 = ( + + + ) −1 =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 16
Thus, HC = (16 V 2 /R)t
S1. (b) V = IR = ( neAvd )  m l
A S7. (d) Resistance of a conductor, R =
V ne2 A
 ρ= As the temperature increases, the relaxation time τ
Vd1ne decreases because the number of collisions of
Here V = potential difference electrons per second increases due to increase in
l = length of wire thermal energy of electrons.
n = no. of electrons per unit volume of conductor. S8. (b)
e = no. of electrons
Placing the value of above parameters, we get
resistivity
5
= −19
8 10 1.6 10
28
 2.5 10−4  0.1
=1.6 10−5 m  1 
R1 = ; R2 = 2
S2. (d) let us consider, V is the potential across balance point r 2
 r2
and one end of wire,
From the principle of potentiometer, V ∝l i1R1 = i2R2 (same potential difference)
Also, if a cell of emf E is employed in the circuit i R r12 3 4 1
between the ends of potentiometer wire of length L
1 = 2 = 2
 =  =
i2 R1 1 r22 4 9 3
then E∝L.
𝑉 𝑙 R1
⇒ = ;
𝐸 𝐿 S9. (c) = 1
where 2 = 100 – 1
Were R2 2
V = emf of battery, E = emf of X 20
standard cell. In the first case =
L = Length of potentiometer wire
Y 80
In the second case
El 30 E
V= = 4X
L 100 =  = 50
Y 100 −
S10. (d) By junction rule at point B
S3. (c) In series (maximum), Rs = nR
–I + 1A + 2A = 0
Where R= resistance of each resistor
So, I = 3A
1 1 1
In parallel (minimum), = + + ...n terms By Loop rule,
Rp R R − 3  2 − 1  1 − E + 12 = 0
The ratio of maximum to minimum resistance is, E = 5V
𝑅𝑠 𝑛2 S11. (d) The equivalent circuit is given below:
= = 𝑛2
𝑅𝑝 1
S4. (b) According to the condition of balancing
55 R
=  R = 220
20 80
S5. (a) J = σE ⇒Jρ= E J is current density; E is electric field so The equivalent resistance is given by
B = ρ = resistivity. 1 1 1 1 3 1
S6. (c) Let resistance of coil = R and voltage of battery
= + + = =
R 6 6 6 6 2
=V
𝑅  Req = 2
here resistance of each part = 2 and equivalent
S12. (c) The current through the resistance R
resistance
    S18. (c) Given, emf of cell E 200 V Internal resistance of cells
I = R = 1 Ω D.C. main supply voltage V = 220 V External
 R+r  resistance R =?
The potential difference across R
 E-V 
r=  R
 V 
 20 
1=   R
 220 
𝜀
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = (
𝑅+𝑟
)𝑅  R = 11.
S19. (c) i = neAVd and Vd  E (Given)
or, i  E
i2  E
𝑉=
𝜀
𝑟
i2  V
(1+ )
𝑅 Hence graph (c) correctly depicts the V-I graph for
when R = 0, V = 0, R = ∞, v =  a wire made of such type of
Thus, V increases as R increases up to certain limit, material.
but it does not increase further. E E
S13. (c) Resistance of bulb is constant S20. (d) I = , Internal resistance (r) is zero, I = =
R+r R
V2 p 2V R constant.
P=  = +
R p V R S21. (b) a condition of no current flow through the
galvanometer A potentiometer is an accurate and
p
= 2  2.5 + 0 = 5% versatile device to make electrical measurements of
p emf because the method involves a condition of no
S14. (d) R1 + R2 = Constant R1 will increases, R2 will decrease. current flow through the galvanometer, the device
R1αΔT − RβΔT = 0  R1αΔT = R 2βΔT can be used to measure potential difference, internal
resistance of a cell and compare emf's of two
R1 
 = sources.
R2  S22. (a) Drift velocity alone as we know drift velocity is the
S15. (a) Pot. gradient = 0.2mV/cm average uniform velocity acquired by the free
0.2 10−3 electrons inside a metal by the application of electric
= −2
= 2 10−2V / m field which is responsible for the current through it.
10 Relation between drift velocity ( vd ) and current ( I )is
Emf of cell = 2  10-2  1m = 2  10-2 V = 0.02V As given by,
per the condition of potentiometer 0.02(R + 490) = I = ne A Vd
2 (R) or 1.98 R = 9.8 Thus, only drift velocity determines the current in a
9.8
 R= = 4.9 conductor.
1.98 S23. (d) Option (a) and (b) Resistivity is a function of
relaxation time(𝜏) and mass of charge carrier (m).
Mass of charge carrier is independent of
temperature, whereas length also does not fluctuate
significantly over a temperature range.
S24. (b) conservation of charge and the fact that there is no
accumulation of charged at a junction.
According to junction rule, the algebraic sum of
S16. (d) Applying Kirchhoff’s rule in loop abcfa current or charge flowing per unit time towards a
1 − ( i1 + i2 ) R − i1 r1 = 0. junction in an electric network is zero, i.e., the law of
S17. (c) To convert a galvanometer into a conservation of charge verifies answer (b) and no
voltmeter we connect a high resistance in series with any charges accumulate at junction as the sum of
the galvanometer. The same procedure needs to be entering and outgoing charge are equal, at any time
done if ammeter is to be used as a voltmeter. interval. It verifies answer (d).
S25. (b) 104 Ω S3. (i) In region DE, material GaAs (Gallium Arsenide) offers
∆𝑉
It is known that the resistance of a dry human body is negative resistance, because slope < 0
∆𝐼
10 kΩ = 104 Ω. (ii) The region BC approximately passes through the
origin, (or current also increases with the increase of
ASSERTION AND REASONING
voltage). Hence, it follows Ohm’s law and, in this
∆V
S1. (d) The e.m.f. of a dry cell is dependent upon the region, >0
∆I
electrode potential of cathode and anode which in S4. (i) In an open circuit, the emf of a cell and terminal
turn is dependent upon the reaction involved as well voltage are same. (ii) In closed circuit, a current is
as the concentration of the electrolyte. It has nothing drawn from the source, so, V = E – Ir, it is true/valid,
to do with the size of the cell. So, both assertion & because each cell has some finite internal resistance
reason are wrong. S5. In silicon, the resistivity increases.
S2. (b) Current continues to flow in a super conducting coil
even after switch off because at critical temperature,
its resistance is zero so there is no hindrance to
current flow. Meissner effect says that at critical
temperature magnetic field inside the conductor is
zero i.e., B=0 but this does not explain assertion.
S3. (a) A voltmeter is always connected in parallel. This has
of course a large resistance.
S4. (d) Ohm's law is obeyed by metals for a certain range of In copper, the resistivity decreases
temperature, not obeyed by superconductors,
valves, diodes and semiconductors. It is not a
universal law but it is purely empirical.
S5. (b) The electric power of a heater is more than that of
the bulb. As P∝ 1/R , the resistance of heater
connected in parallel to the bulb is switched on, it
draws more current due to its lesser resistance,
consequently, the current through the bulb
decreases and so it becomes dim. When the heater SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
coil becomes sufficient hot, its resistance becomes
more and hence it draws a little lesser current. S1. (i) Drift Velocity: The average velocity acquired by the
Consequently, the current through the electric bulb free electrons of a conductor in a direction opposite
recovers. to the externally applied electric field is called drift
velocity. The drift velocity will remain the same with
VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS lattice ions/atoms.
(ii) Relaxation Time: The average time of free travel of
S1. The conductivity of a material equals the reciprocal free electrons between two successive collisions is
of the resistance of its wire of unit length and unit called the relaxation time.
area of cross-section. Its SI unit is S2. Resistance= 47 kΩ ± 10% = 47 ± 103Ω± 10% Sequence
1
( − 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟) or ohm –1 –1
m –1
or (mho m ) or of color should be: Yellow, Violet, Orange and Silver
𝑜ℎ𝑚
Siemen m –1 (i) Very low temperature coefficient of resistance.
S2. The variation of electric current with applied voltage (ii) High resistivity
for GaAs is as shown. S3. (a) A thick copper strip offers a negligible resistance, so
it does not alter the value of resistances used in the
meter bridge.
(b) If the balance point is taken in the middle, it is done
to minimise the percentage error in calculating the
value of unknown resistance.
(c) Generally, alloys magainin/constantan/nichrome are
used in meter bridge, because these materials have
low temperature coefficient of resistivity.
S4. (i) By increasing resistance R, the current in main circuit
decreases, so potential gradient decreases. Hence a
 greater length of wire would be needed for balancing connected between B and D. When the bridge is
the same potential difference. So, the null point balanced, there is no current in galvanometer.
would shift towards right (i.e., towards B). Derivation of Formula: Let the current flowing in the
(ii) By decreasing resistance S, the terminal potential circuit in the balanced condition be I. This current on
𝜀
difference V= 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟, were,𝐼 = reaching point A is divided into two parts I 1 and I2. As
𝑟+𝑆
𝜀
𝑉= 𝑟 across cell decreases, so balance is obtained there is no current in galvanometer in balanced
1+
𝑠 condition, current in resistances P and Q is I1 and in
at small length i.e., point will be obtained at smaller resistances R and S it is I2. Applying Kirchhoff ’s I law
length. So, the null point would shift towards left (i.e., at point A
towards A). 𝐼 − 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝑚
S5. We know that𝜌 = 2 , Applying Kirchhoff ’s II law to closed mesh ABDA
𝑛𝑒 𝜏
where m is mass of electron,𝜌 = charge density, τ = −𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼2 𝑅 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐼1 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 …eq(1)
relaxation time e = charge on the electron. Applying Kirchhoff ’s II law to mesh BCDB
(i) In case of conductors with increase in temperature, −𝐼1 𝑄 + 𝐼2 𝑆 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐼1 𝑄 = 𝐼2 𝑆 ….eq(2)
relaxation time decreases, so resistivity increases. Dividing equation (1) by (2), we get
𝐼1 𝑃 𝐼 𝑅 𝑃 𝑅
= 2 𝑜𝑟 =
𝐼1 𝑄 𝐼2 𝑆 𝑄 𝑆
This is the condition of balance of Wheatstone
bridge.
S2. Meter Bridge: Special Case of Wheatstone Bridge It
is a practical device based on the principle of
Wheatstone bridge to determine the unknown
resistance of a wire. If ratio of arms resistors in
(ii) In case of semiconductors with increase in temperature Wheatstone bridge is constant, then no current flows
number density (n) of free electrons increases, hence through the galvanometer (or bridge wire).
resistivity decreases

LONG QUESTIONS ANSWERS Construction: It consists of a uniform 1-metre-long wire AC of

constantan or manganin fixed along a scale on a
S1. wooden base (fig.) The ends A and C of wire are
joined to two L-shaped copper strips carrying
connecting screws as shown. In between these
copper strips, there is a third straight copper strip
having three connecting screws. The middle screw D
is connected to a sensitive galvanometer. The other
terminal of galvanometer is connected to a sliding
jockey B. The jockey can be made to move anywhere
parallel to wire AC.
Circuit diagram: To find the unknown resistance S, the circuit is
complete as shown in fig. The unknown resistance
wire of resistance S is connected across the gap
between points C and D and a resistance box is
connected across the gap between the points A and
Condition of balance of a Wheatstone bridge: The D. A cell, a rheostat and a key (K) is connected
circuit diagram of Wheatstone bridge is shown in fig. between the points A and C by means of connecting
P, Q, R and S are four resistances forming a closed screws. In the experiment when the sliding jockey
bridge, called Wheatstone bridge. A battery is touches the wire AC at any point, then the wire is
connected across A and C, while a galvanometer is
 divided into two parts. These two parts AB and BC act
as the resistances P and Q of the Wheatstone bridge. NUMERICAL TYPE QUESTIONS
In this way the resistances of arms AB, BC, AD and DC
form the resistances P, Q, R and S of Wheatstone S1. The circuit is equivalent to Fig. It is a balanced
bridge. Thus, the circuit of meter bridge is the same Wheatstone bridge between abcd, and then in
as that of Wheatstone bridge. parallel (2R) resistances. Thus, ignoring resistance
Method: To determine the unknown resistance, first of all key between bd arm. The circuit is equivalent to three
K is closed and a resistance R is taken out from (2R) resistances in parallel
resistance box in such a way that on pressing jockey B
B at end points A and C, the deflection in R R
galvanometer is on both the sides. Now jockey is slide R
A C
on wire at such a position that on pressing the jockey
on the wire at that point, there is no deflection in the R
galvanometer G. In this position, the points B and D R R
are at the same potential; therefore, the bridge is D
R R
balanced. The point B is called the null point. The
length of both parts AB and BC of the wire are read 1 1 1 3
1
on the scale. The condition of balance of Wheatstone i.e. = + + =
R eq 2R 2R 2R 2R
bridge is
𝑃 𝑅
= 2
𝑄 𝑆 Req = R
⇒ Unknown resistance, S= ( ) 𝑅
𝑄 3
𝑃 S2.
If r is the resistance per cm length of wire AC and l cm b
is the length of wire AB, then length of wire BC will
be (100 – l) cm r r
P = resistance of wire AB=lr a c
Q = resistance of wire BC= (100 – l) r A r B
𝑄
Substituting these values in equation S= ( ) 𝑅, we
𝑃 r r
get
(100 − 𝑙)𝑟 100 − 𝑙 d
𝑆= × 𝑅 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 = 𝑅 Imagine, A being pulled on the left side, then abcd
𝑙𝑟 𝑙
As the resistance (R) of wire (AB) is known, the becomes a balanced Wheatstone bridge Fig. The arm
resistance S may be calculated. A number of bd can be ignored. Then resistance between A, B
observations are taken for different resistances taken becomes = r.
in resistance box and S is calculated each time and 1 1 1 1
the mean value of S is found. i.e. = + =
R eq 2r 2r r
𝑆𝐴 𝑆𝜋𝑟 2
Specific resistance ρ = Req = r
𝑙 𝐿
Knowing resistance S, radius r by screw gauge and S3. The current in 1W resistance is 3A. The current in 3W
length of wire L by meter scale, the value of r may be R2
resistance is I1 = I
calculated. If a small resistance is to be measured, all R1 + R 2
other resistances used in the circuit, including the 6
galvanometer, should be low to ensure sensitivity of = × 3 = 2A.
the bridge. Also, the resistance of thick copper strips 3+ 6
and connecting wires (end resistances) become 2
Therefore, the ratio is
comparable to the resistance to be measured. This 3
results in large error in measurement. 2 2
Precautions: (i) In this experiment the resistances of the copper S4. Req about GH RGH = = 1W
2+4
strips and connecting screws have not been taken
2 2
into account. These resistances are called end- Req about EF REF = = 1W
resistances. Therefore, very small resistances cannot 2+2
be found accurately by meter bridge. The resistance 2 2
Req about CD = 1W
S should not be very small. 2+2
(ii) The current should not flow in the metro bridge Req about AB 1 + 1 = 2W.
wire for a long time, otherwise the wire will become
hot and its resistance will be changed.
S5. Let R be the combined resistance of galvanometer 80
and an unknown resistance and r the internal × 2000. t = 4.2 ×1000 × 1 x× (100–4)
100
resistance of each battery. When the batteries, each
of e.m.f. E are connected in series, the net e.m.f. = 2E
42  1000 96  1000
t= = 252 sec.
and net internal resistance = 2r 2000 80
2E 2  15 S9. If the wire is connected as such across the battery,
Current i1 = or 1.0 = then current in wire,
R + 2r R + 2r
R + 2r = 3.0 … eq (1)
V 200
I= = = 2.5 A and power obtained,
When the batteries are connected in parallel, the R 80
e.m.f. remains E and net internal resistance becomes V2 200 200
r/2. Therefore P= = = 500 watts.
R 80
E 2E The wire can carry maximum current of 5 A,
Current i2 = =
R+
r 2R + r therefore to double the current, the resistance
2 should be halved. Thus, if we divide the wire in two
2E 2  1.5 parts and the two parts are connected in parallel
2R + r = = = 5.0 ..eq (2) across 200 V mains supply, the resistance of each part
i2 0.6
200
Solving eq (1) and (2), we get r = 1 /3 W. = 40W, therefore current in each wire = = 5A.
S6. When capacitor is fully charged no current flow in 40
capacitor R 1R 2 40  40
Net resistance, R' = = = 20W
Current from Battery R1 + R 2 40 + 40
E 6 6 V2
I= = = =1.5 A and new power obtained, Pmax =
R + R'  2  3  2.8 + 1.2 R'
2.8 +  
 2 + 3 200 200
Current in 2W Branch = = 2000 Watts.
20
I  3 I  3 1.5 3
I(2W) = = = = 0.9A Thus, maximum power is 2000 watts and this is
3+ 2 5 5 obtained when wire is cut in two halves and they are
S7. Since all bulbs are identical, they have the same connected in parallel across the given supply.
resistances. The current I flowing through 1 branch at S10. Since there is no current in edcb part, the p.d. across
A. So current in 2 and 3, as well as in 4 will be less b, e should be 2V. Let current in 500 W is I, then same
than I. The current through 5 is also I. Thus and 5 glow current flows through X (think).
equally brightly and more than 2, 3 or 4. 12x
S8. We know that the relation between work and heat =2
500 + x
produced is
12x = 1000 + 2x
W = JH
x = 100W
P.t = J. msDq
 HOMEWORK EXERCISE SOLUTIONS
Similarly, when two light rays combine, they also do
MCQ not follow the laws of vector addition so it is also not
a vector quantity
S1. (c) Electric current
The rate of flow of electric charge through any cross- S2. (b) Drift velocity is the average velocity of electrons in
section of a conductor is known as electric current. presence of electric field, which is independent of
S2. (a) 𝜇 time.
Mobility is denoted by µ. S3. (a) In an insulator, the valence band is completely filled
S3. (d) Diode and the conduction band is completely empty. There
A non-ohmic resistance is a resistance that does not are no charge carriers at all in the conduction hand.
obey ohm’s law. Among the given options, a diode is Moreover, as the energy gap Eg >> KBT where T is the
a non-ohmic resistance. room temperature, so no electron can jump from the
valence band to the conduction band at low,
S4. (b) vector quantity.
temperatures and even at higher temperatures.
Current density is a vector quantity
S4. (b) During take-off and landing, the friction between
S5. (b) Internal resistance the opposition offered by the tyres and the run way may cause electrification of
electrolyte of the cell to the flow of current through tyres. Due to conducting nature of tyre, the charge so
itself is known as internal resistance. collected is conducted to a ground and electrical
S6. (c) Superconductivity sparking is avoided.
The resistivity of certain metals or alloys drops to S5. (b) Gravitational force is the dominating force in nature
zero when they are cooled below a certain and not coulomb's force. Gravitational force is the
temperature, this phenomenon is known as weakest force. Also, Coulomb's force>> gravitational
superconductivity. force.
S7. (b) The current in 1W resistance is 3A. The current in 3W
𝑅
resistance is I1 = 2 I VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
𝑅1 +𝑅2
6
= × 3 = 2A.
3+6 S1. The emf of a cell is equal to the terminal voltage,
2
Therefore, the ratio is when the circuit is open. The emf of a cell is less than
3
𝑉2 220×220 the terminal voltage, when the cell is being charged,
S8. (a) Resistance of the bulb R = = i.e., V = E + ir
𝑃 100
The new power for the voltage of 110 volt is
𝑉′2 110×110
S2. Resistance
P' = = = 25 watt. 𝝆𝒍 𝝆𝒍
𝑅 484 𝑹 = = 𝟐 𝒔𝒔
𝑨 𝝅𝒓
S9. (a) V is directly proportional to I Resistivity ρ of manganin is much greater than that of
By ohm's law, voltage is directly proportional to copper, therefore to keep same resistance for same
current only and not resistance, and the R in the length of wire, the manganin wire must be thicker.
equation is the proportionality constant, whose
S3. Alloys have
value depends on the circuit.
(i)low value of temperature coefficient and the
S10. (a) We know that the relation between work and heat resistance of the alloy does not vary much with rise
produced is in temperature.
W = JH (ii)high resistivity, so even a smaller length of the
P.t = J. msDq material is sufficient to design high standard
80
× 2000. t = 4.2 ×1000 × 1 x (100–4) resistance.
100
42×1000×96×1000
t= = 252 sec S4. A voltmeter has a finite resistance and draws current
2000×80
from a cell, therefore voltmeter measures terminal
ASSERTION AND REASONING potential difference rather than emf, while a
potentiometer at balance condition, does not draw
S1. (a) Electric current and velocity of light are both scalar any current from the cell; so the cell remains in open
quantities. In the case of electric current, when two circuit. Hence potentiometer reads the actual value
different electric currents meet at a junction, the net of emf.
sum of the two currents will not be due to vector S5. The metal strips have low resistance and need not be
addition but will be rather due to the algebraic sum counted in the potentiometer length l of the null
of the two currents. Hence electric current is not a point. One measures only their lengths along the
vector quantity. straight segments (of length l meter each). This is
 easily done with the help of centimeter rulings or Circuit: A battery B1 a rheostat (Rh) and a key K is
meter ruler and leads to accurate measurements. connected across the ends A and B of the
potentiometer wire such that positive terminal of
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS battery is connected to point A. This completes the
primary circuit. Now the given cell C is connected
S1. (a) such that its positive terminal is connected to A and
negative terminal to jockey J through a
galvanometer. A resistance box (R) and a key K1 are
connected across the cell. This completes the
secondary circuit.

OR

(b) At a temperature of 4 K, the resistance of Hg

becomes zero. Method:
(i) Initially key K is closed and a potential difference is
S2. (a) Principle of Potentiometer: When a constant current
applied across the wire AB. Now rheostat Rh is so
flows through a wire of uniform area of cross-section,
adjusted that on touching the jockey J at ends A and
the potential drop across any length of the wire is
B of potentiometer wire, the deflection in the
directly proportional to the length.
galvanometer is on both sides. Suppose that in this
(b) Possible causes for one side deflection:
position the potential gradient on the wire is k.
(i) The emf ε1 (or ε2) is more than the emf of driver cell
(ii) Now key K1 is kept open and the position of null
(auxiliary battery).
deflection is obtained by sliding and pressing the
(ii) The end of the potentiometer wire connected to +ve
jockey on the wire. Let this position be P1 and AP1 = l1
of auxiliary battery is connected to negative terminal
In this situation the cell is in open circuit, therefore
of the cell whose emf is to be determined.
the terminal potential difference will be equal to the
S3. Principle: The potential drop across a part of the emf of cell, i.e.,
potentiometer wire is directly proportional to the Emf 𝜀 = 𝑘𝑙1
length of that part of the wire of uniform cross (iii) Now a suitable resistance R is taken in the
section. V = k l resistance box and key K1 is closed. Again, the
where k is potential gradient. Current sensitivity of position of null point is obtained on the wire by using
potentiometer wire is also known as potential jockey J. Let this position on wire be P2 and AP2= l2.
gradient, and it can be increased. In this situation the cell is in closed circuit, therefore
(i) By increasing the total length of the wire, keeping the terminal potential difference (V) of cell will
terminal voltage constant. be equal to the potential difference across external
(ii) By connecting a suitable extra resistance R in series resistance R, i.e.,
with the potentiometer. So, less amount of the V = kl2
current flows through the potentiometer wire. Dividing Emf 𝜀 = 𝑘𝑙1 By V = kl2 we get
Reasons: At the balance point, there is no net current 𝜀 𝑙
= 1
𝑉 𝑙2
drawn from the cell, and cell is in open circuit 𝜀 𝑙
condition. Voltmeter has some resistance, when ∴ Internal resistance of cell, r= ( − 1) 𝑅 = ( 1 −
𝑉 𝑙2
connected across the cell. Some current is drawn, as
1) 𝑅
a result emf of the cell decreases. Hence, emf of the
cell cannot be measured by the voltmeter. From this formula r may be calculated.

NUMERICAL TYPE QUESTIONS

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS
S1. Let R be the resistance of each resistor.
S1. Determination of Internal Resistance of
When they are connected in series, the total
Potentiometer.
resistance = R + R + R = 3R ohm.
 Power dissipated W1 = E2/3R, where E = emf of the S5. Let R is resistance of the voltmeter. The effective
resistance across points A, B is
source. 60×R
When the resistors are connected in parallel, their r= ... (1)
60+R
effective resistance is given by The current in the circuit is I = 12/(50 + r)
1 1 1 1 3 The p.d. across AB points is V = Ir
= + + = 12
or 6= × r or 50 + r = 2r
R' R R R R 50+r

R or r = 50 Ω ... (2)
or R' = using it in (1),
3 60
we get 50 =
60+R
E2 3E 2 300 + 5R = 6R
Power dissipated W2 = =
R /3 R or R = 300 Ω
W1 3E 2 3R S6. We know,
Now = × 2 =9
W2 R G
E S=
n−1
or W2 = 9W1 = 9 × 10 = 90 watt G G
= = Ω
100−1 99
(QW1 = 10 watt). V 25
S7. ∴i= = A
R 1000
S2. Power of the motor = VI= 110 ×10= 1100 watt
Let R′ be the required resistance to be connected in
Heat loss in the motor = i2R = (10)2 × 2 = 200 watt series with voltmeter.
Power converted to mechanical work V′
So i=
= (1100 – 200) watt = 900 watt R+R′
25
Percentage of total power consumed in mechanical Here V ′ = 250, R = 1000 Ω and i = A
1000
work = (900/1100) × 100 = 82% (approximate). 25 250
∴ = ⇒ R′ = 9000 Ω.
1000 1000+R′
4V 0.1
S3. S8. Suppose current through different paths of the circuit is
as follows.
4V 0.2

4V 0.3
A B

2.045
The circuit arrangement is shown in fig. As the
batteries are connected in parallel, hence total emf
of the circuit = 4V. After applying KVL of loop (1) and loop (2)
1
The effective resistance RAB between A and B is given We get 28𝑖1 = −6 − 8 ⇒ 𝑖1 = − A
2
1
by and 54𝑖2 = −6 − 12 ⇒ 𝑖2 = − A
3
1 1 1 1 110 Hence 𝑖3 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 = − A
5
= + + = 6
R AB 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 6
S9. The given circuit can be visualized as a combination of two
6 batteries in parallel.
RAB = = 0.055 ohm.
110 The emf & internal resistance of batteries are,
(a) Equivalent resistance of the circuit R = RAB + 2.045 = E 1 = 5 V, r 1 = 10 Ω, E 2 = 2 V, r 2 = x Ω
0.055 + 2.045 = 2.1 ohm. Since, both batteries are in parallel combination with
(b) Equivalent voltage = 4 volt. same polarity, so net emf will be
𝐸 𝑟 +𝐸 𝑟
𝐸𝑒𝑞 = 1 2 2 2
𝑟1 +𝑟2
S4. Number of free electrons n =8.4×10 22 ×10 6 per m 3 5X+2×10
=8.4×10 28 per m 3 𝐸𝑒𝑞 =
X+10
Current in the wire I = 0.21 A Equivalent internal resistance,
𝑟 𝑟
Cross-section of the wire A=1mm 2 = 10 −6 m 2 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 1 2
𝐼 𝑟1 +𝑟2
Thus, drift velocity of electrons, v = 10×𝑋
𝑛𝑒𝐴 𝑟𝑒𝑞 =
0.21 −5 10+𝑋
= = 1.56 × 10 m/s The equivalent circuit can be drawn as:
8.4×1028 ×(1.6×10−19 )×(10−6 )
 Apply KVL between points A and B, VA + E eq − i req =
VB Applying KCL at junction A
since, circuit is open, so current, i = 0 𝑖3 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ...(i)
⇒ E eq = VB − VA Given that VB − VA = 4 V Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law for the loop ABCDA
⇒
5X+2×10
=4 −30𝑖1 − 40𝑖3 + 40 = 0
X+10
⇒ −30𝑖1 − 40(𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ) + 40 = 0
⇒40+4x=5x+20 ⇒ 7𝑖 + 4𝑖2 = 0 ...(ii)
⇒ X = 20 Ω Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law for the loop ADEFA.
S10. The circuit can be simplified as follows −40𝑖2 − 40𝑖3 + 80 + 4 = 0
⇒ −40𝑖2 − 40(𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ) = −120
⇒ 𝑖2 + 2𝑖2 = 3 ...(iii)
On solving equation (ii) and (iii) 𝑖1 = −0.4 A
.