Maxwells equations – Isotropic medium Maxwells equations – Vacuum

Gauss’s Law Q Gauss’s Law ∇ .E = 0

Gauss’s Law ∇ .B = 0 Gauss’s Law ∇ .B = 0

𝜕B
Faraday’s Law 𝜕B ∇×E=−
∇×E= −
𝜕t
Faraday’s Law 𝜕t

𝜕E 𝜕E
Ampere – Maxwell’s Law ∇ × B = μo I + μo εo Ampere – Maxwell’s Law ∇ × B = μo εo
𝜕t 𝜕t

Where E is electric filed, B is magnetic field, εo is permittivity of free space and μo permeability of
free space .
 Poynting vector: Energy of EM waves

• The Poynting vector is a vector that represents the rate of flow of electromagnetic
energy per unit area at a given point.

Where 𝑠Ԧ is the Poynting vector, 𝐸 is the electric field, 𝐵 is the electric field and o is
the permeability of free space (o = 410-7 Hm-1 )
• Energy of EM waves ∝ Intensity (Amplitude − Eo2 )
• The direction of Poynting vector is along the direction of propagation of
electromagnetic wave
• The Unit of Poynting vector is watt/m2.
Plank quantum theory of black body radiation
• To understand the results of black body radiation, Rayleigh-Jeans law predicted that the energy
emitted by a black body would increase indefinitely at higher frequencies at any temperature T,
this is called as ultraviolet catastrophe.
• To resolve this ultraviolet catastrophe, Max Planck proposed that electromagnetic radiation is
quantized. He suggested that energy could only be emitted in discrete packets, or "quanta,"
rather than in continuous amounts.
• The energy of each quantum is proportional to its frequency, i.e. E = h, where E is the energy of
the quantum, h is Planck's constant, and  is the frequency of the radiation.
• Further, Planck derived a formula for spectral distribution of black body radiation.
• Energy density of radiation for interval frequency d is equal to the number of independent
standing waves per unit volume in the cavity multiplied with average energy per standing waves
82 ℎ
U() d= 3 d ℎ
c
e( 𝑘𝑇 ) −1
Where U() d energy density of radiation (per unit volume) at frequency  and temperature
T, c is the speed of light, and k is the Boltzmann's constant.
• The above formula successfully explained the results of black body radiation at both lower and
higher frequencies.
Results of Photoelectric effect using electromagnetic wave theory and quantum theory
Photoelectric effect result – In Photoelectric effect experiment, radiation (electromagnetic waves)
interact with matter where emission of electron from the metal when radiation of frequency greater
than a cutoff frequency.
• The photoelectron emission is instantaneous (about 10-9 s)
• A bright light yields more photoelectrons than a dim one of the same frequency, but the electron
energies remain the same
• The kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons depended only on the frequency of the incident
radiation and not on the intensity of incident radiation.
Classical EM wave theory: The Photoelectric effect results could not be explained on the basis of the
classical EM wave theory.
• The classical theory suggests that electrons accumulate of energy from the incident waves on continuous
irradiation and when the energy of the electrons is more than the work function of the material it is emitted
from the metal after a delayed time.
• According to the classical EM wave theory the kinetic energy of the electrons emitted should be
dependent on the intensity of the radiation and independent of the wavelength. All these explanations
were in contradiction to the experimental results.
Quantum theory: Einstein explained the effect considering light to behave as particles called Photons.
The interaction of the photons with the electrons in the metal can result in transfer of energy to the
electron.
• Because EM wave energy is concentrated in photons and not spread out, there should be no delay in
the emission of photoelectrons.
• All photons of frequency  have the same energy, so changing the intensity of a monochromatic light
beam will change the number of photoelectrons but not their energies.
• The higher the frequency , the greater the photon energy h and so the more energy the
photoelectrons have.
• The Kinetic energy of photoelectron is K.Emax = h -h0
where h is the photon energy, KEmax is the maximum photoelectron energy (which is
proportional to the stopping potential), and h0 is the minimum energy needed for an electron to leave
the metal.

Work Function: The minimum energy  is required for an electron to escape from a particular metal
surface or else electrons would pour out all the time. This energy is called the work function of the
metal,  =h0
The Kinetic energy of photoelectron is K.Emax = h -h0
Compton Shift: The X-ray or Gamma rays collides with a loosely bound electron (like those in atoms),
it transfers some of its energy to the electron. The result of scattered photon loses energy and thus
increases its wavelength.

The change in wavelength between incident photon and scattered photon is called Compton Shift.

Where Δλ is the change in wavelength, λ′ is the wavelength, after scattering, λ is the initial wavelength,
h is Planck’s constant, me is the electron mass, c is the speed of light and  is the angle between
scattered photon and plane of incident photon.
Experimental results:
• The Compton shift Δ𝜆 is independent of the incident wavelength of X rays.
• The Compton shift Δ𝜆 is independent of the type of the scattering material.
• The Compton shift Δ𝜆 is depends only on the angle of scattering of the X rays.

• At  =0o we notice there is no shift in the wavelength.

Experimental confirmation of Compton scattering. The greater the scattering angle, the greater the wavelength
change
In classical EM wave theory, when light waves encounter particles, they induce oscillations in the
charge distribution of the particles. These oscillating charges emit their own electromagnetic
waves, which propagate outward, leading to scattering. The change in wavelength after scattering
was observed in Compton effect experiment was failed to explain by classical EM wave theory.
Module 1 Questions
01 Write a note on Maxwell’s equations (differential form) in Isotropic medium. 5 marks

02 Write a note on Maxwell’s equations (differential form) in vacuum. 5 marks

03 Discuss the Poynting vector of energy carried by travelling electromagnetic wave 5 marks

04 Discuss how Plank quantum theory resolved the Ultraviolet Catastrophe. 5 marks
or
Explain Plank quantum theory of black body radiation.
05 List the results of Photoelectric effect. 5 marks

06 Discuss the results of Photoelectric effect using quantum theory 5 marks

07 Define work function. Ultraviolet light of wavelength 350 nm strikes on the calcium 5 marks
surface, the maximum KE of the photoelectrons is 0.3 eV. Find the work function of
calcium in eV?
08 What is Compton Shift? What are the experimental observation of Compton Effect 5 marks

09 Discuss the dual nature of radiation using classical Electromagnetic wave theory and 5 marks
Photoelectric and Compton effect.