ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE

Temperature refers to the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance or a thing. Temperature

provides a measure of the intensity of heat energy. Atmospheric temperature is a function of
the modification of solar radiant energy by air, clouds, land, sea and other water surfaces.

Heat measures total molecular energy. Temperature measures average energy of individual
molecules. Temperature is that characteristic of a body which determines the direction of heat
flow.

A. Daily cycle of Temperature /Diurnal variation

From sunrise to 2pm, energy supply of incoming solar radiation is faster than it is being lost
by earth as re-radiation, for that, the air temperature rises. After 2-3 pm, when the loss of
radiation by earth exceeds receipt of solar energy the temperature falls. It is noticeable that the
time of highest temperature (2 pm) does not exactly coincide with that of highest noon solar
radiation (12 pm). This lag occurs because temperature continued to rise as long as the amount
of incoming solar radiation exceeds the outgoing earth’s radiation. The energy receipts begin
to decline in the afternoon. The energy gained during the day is slowly lost to the atmosphere,
resulting in the reduction of temperature. Hence, minimum temperature is reached between 2
to 6 am.

Diurnal variation of temperature: The variation of temperature during a 24h period is known
as diurnal variation. The minimum temperature on a clear day over land is recorded 30 min
before sunrise; the maximum occurs approximately after midday (2 pm).

B. Vertical distribution of Earth atmospheric Temperature

The vertical temperature variation does not show uniform behaviour and the atmosphere can
be divided into four spheres.

Troposphere
Temperature decreases with increasing height in the troposphere but the rate of decrease
varies according to seasons, duration of sunshine and location. Temperature decreases
from 15°C to -60°C.
Stratosphere
 Upward from tropopause the temperature is reported to increase with increasing height in
the stratosphere wherein it becomes 0°C or 32°F at the height of 50km from sea level
(temperature increases from -60°C to 0°C).
Mesosphere
Temperature again decreases with increasing height. At the upper most limit of the layer
temperature becomes – 80°C to – 100°C (temperature decreases from 0°C to -90°C).
Thermosphere
The layer of the atmosphere beyond mesopause, wherein temperature increases rapidly
with increasing height. The temperature at its upper limit becomes 1700°C. After this layer
also, temperature continues to increase rapidly with increasing height. The temperature
becomes 5568°C at its outer limit (10,000 km).

Lapse rate

The temperature decreases with elevation, as a general rule throughout the troposphere. The
rate of decrease with altitude is not uniform; it varies with time of the day, season and location.
The average decrease is approximately 0.65oC/100m or 6.5oC/km. This is known as normal
lapse rate or vertical temperature gradient.

Temperature Inversion

Although normally, the lower several miles of atmosphere show a decrease in temperature with
increasing altitude, this condition is reversed at certain levels so that temperature temporarily
increases with altitude when the colder air lies below warmer air and closer to earth’s surface
the normal lapse rate is reversed and this is called temperature inversion.

Adiabatic lapse rate

The adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which the temperature of an air parcel changes in response
to the compression or expansion associated with elevation change, under the assumption that
the process is adiabatic, i.e., no heat exchange occurs between the given air parcel and its
surroundings. Descending wind means wind at bottom
Collapse/settling
When a dry air lifted upward due to subsidence of air, turbulence, convective and frictional
forces without mixing heat with the environment, the lapse rate is approximately 10°C per km,
(5.5°F per 1000 feet) this cooling rate is called dry adiabatic lapse rate. The dry adiabatic lapse
rate refers to the lapse rate of unsaturated air (i.e., air with a relative humidity of less than
100%). On the other hand, the latent heat of condensation released after precipitation is added
Top
to the ascending winds, with the result the temperature of the ascending winds decreases at the

Condensation is the change of the state of matter from the gas phase into the liquid phase, and
is the reverse of vaporization. latent heat of condensation is defined as the heat released when
one mole of the substance condenses
rate of 6°C per km. (3°F per 1000 feet) this rate is called moist or retarded adiabatic rate or
saturated adiabatic lapse rate.

C. Seasonal variation of temperature

In addition to its daily rotation, the Earth revolves in a complete orbit around the sun once each
year. Since the axis of the Earth tilts to the plane of orbit, the angle of incident solar radiation
varies seasonally between hemispheres. The Northern Hemisphere is warmer in June, July, and
August because it receives more solar energy than does the Southern Hemisphere. During
December, January, and February, the opposite is true; the Southern Hemisphere receives more
solar energy and is warmer. In the northern hemisphere winter minimum occurs in January and
summer maximum in July and vice-versa in southern hemisphere.

D. Horizontal distribution of temperature

Distribution of temperature across the latitudes over the surface of the earth is called its
horizontal distribution. On maps, the horizontal distribution of temperature is commonly
shown by isotherms. Isotherms are line connecting points that have an equal temperature.

Factors influencing horizontal distribution of temperature

➢ Latitude exposure to the sun's rays.

The effectiveness of insolation in heating the earth’s surface is largely determined by

the latitude. So, there is a general decrease in temperatures from the equator to poles,
which is a classic example of horizontal temperature distribution.
➢ Ocean currents
Transport of ocean water in the form of current carries heat from one part of the earth
to another which results in horizontal distribution of sea-surface temperature.
➢ Mountain barrier
Mountain ranges tend to guide the movement of cold air masses resulting in horizontal
temperature variation. Ex: Himalayas protect India from polar air.
➢ Topography and relief
In the northern hemisphere north facing slopes generally receive less insolation than
south facing slopes and temperatures are normally lower.

Processes of heat energy transfer

Radiation: Radiation is the process of transmission of energy by Electro-magnetic waves and

is the means by which energy emitted by the sun reaches the earth.
Conduction: Conduction is the process of heat transfer through matter by molecular activity.
In this process heat is transferred from one part of a body to another or between two objects
touching each other. Conduction occurs through molecular movement. E.g., The energy
transmission through an iron rod which is made warmer at one end.

Convection: Convection is the process of heat transfer, through movement of a mass or

substance from one place to another. Convention is possible only in gases or fluids, for they
alone have internal mass motions. In solid substances this type of heat transfer is impossible.
This is predominant form of energy transmission on the earth as all the weather related
processes involve this process.

Energy balance of earth

The temperature of the earth’s surface has been remarkably constant over geologic time. Even
the dramatic cooling during
the ice age represented a
change of only 3°C in the
global average surface
temperature, occurring over
thousands of years. In earth’s
atmosphere the energy
balance is the balance
between incoming energy
from the Sun and outgoing
energy from the Earth. Light
from the Sun warms our
planet. Earth radiates heat out into the frigid vacuum of space. There is a balance between this
warming and cooling that determines the temperature of our world. The earth radiates back
energy to space at the same rate that it absorbed from the sun. Viewed from space, the earth is
approximately a black body with an emission temperature of 253K.

Most of the energy emitted from the earth’s surface does not go directly out to space. This
emitted energy is reabsorbed by clouds and by the gases in the atmosphere. Some of it gets
redistributed by convection. Even more energy is released into the atmosphere through
condensation. The majority of the energy is reabsorbed by the greenhouse gases such as
methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, carbon dioxide and water vapor. These gases constantly emit
the sun’s energy back into the atmosphere and keep the earth a habitable temperature.
Eventually, most of the energy makes its way back out to space and Earth’s energy balance is
fairly well maintained. The energy that doesn’t make its way out is responsible for global
warming.

Importance of air temperature on crop plants

1. Temperature influences distribution of crop plants and vegetation (In Western Himalayas
the temperature falls as altitude increases and this change is responsible for the change of
vegetation at different altitudes).

2. The growth and development of crop plants are chiefly influenced by air temperature.

3. Affects leaf production, expansion and flowering.

4. Physical and chemical processes within the plants are governed by air temperature.

5. The diffusion rate of gases and liquids changes with temperature.

6. Solubility of different substances is dependent on temperature.

7. Influences biochemical reactions in crops (double or triple with each 10°C rise).

8. Equilibrium of various systems and compounds in a function of temperature.

9. Temperature effects the stability of enzymatic systems in the plants.

Cardinal temperatures

There are three points of temperature which influence the growth of crop plants. These are
termed as "cardinal points" and the synonymous term is `cardinal temperature’.

a. A minimum temperature below which growth ceases (minimum cardinal

temperature).
b. An optimum temperature at which the plant growth proceeds with greatest rapidly
(optimum cardinal temperature).
c. A maximum temperature above which plant growth ceases (maximum cardinal
temperature).
 Air temperature and plant injury

Low air temperature and plant injury

On exposure of crop plants to low temperature the following effects are observed. The primary
effect of low air temperature below their optimum temperature is the reduction of rates of
growth and metabolic processes.

1. Suffocation

• Small plants may suffer from oxygen deficiency when covered with densely packed
snow.

2. Physiological drought

• In middle latitudes drought occurs under cool temperature conditions. This is due to
excessive transpiration and low moisture absorption from the soil.

3. Heaving

• Sometimes the roots are pushed completely above the soil surface. It is difficult for the
roots to become firmly established again and the plants may die because of this
mechanical damage and desiccation.

4. Chilling

• Moderate wind speed along with 0 to 10°C air temperature tends to very rapid fall in
the activity of metabolic processes, especially respiration in crop plants. Which is
known as “chilling injury”.
• This results in severe damage and death within few hours or days. This injury is
common in temperate climates where delayed growth and sterility are common
symptoms.
• A phase change (“liquid” to “solid”) in membrane lipids resulting in inactivation of
membrane bound enzymes.
• Sometimes chilling results yellowing of plants.

5. Freezing

• Freezing damage is caused by the formation of ice crystals in the intracellular spaces
and extracellular spaces.
 • Ice within the cells cause injury by mechanical damage and plant parts or entire plant
may be killed or damaged.

High air temperature and plant injury

• The injury caused because of short period fluctuation (within a day highest in noon and
lowest at early morning) in air temperature is known as sunclad.
• The scorching of stem near the soil surface known as stem girdle is another injury at
high air temperatures.
• Plant tissues escape from high heat by emission of long wave radiation, convection of
heat, and transpiration.
• Exposure of crop plants to temperatures over 45°C for just 30 minutes can cause severe
damage to the leaves of plants.
• The effect of high temperature are the disruption of cell metabolism (possibly by protein
denaturation), production of toxic substances, and damage to cellular membranes.