Reading and Writing 3.

Definition
 Provide concise but exact meanings of unfamiliar
words
 Explain special meanings for familiar words
8 Patterns of Development  Often used to explain technical words and concept
Writing
Methods of Definition

1. Narration 1. Informal Definition

 Telling story in chronological order a. Denotative
 Contains the plot which gives direction in making  Dictionary meaning of the word
story
 Sequential presentation of events b. Connotative
 Signal words or transitional devices help to create  Secondary meaning of a word and is not
unified thought and show the transitions of events necessarily included in the dictionary
to the next
 Signal words lead us to focus on the use of the c. Operational Definition
action words in the story and help the story move  Defining a concept by the producers or operations
and make the story interesting used to measure or observe it
 Chronological ordering of events helps to show
the reader how the story moves d. Synonym
 It is important to give specific details in pointing  Similar words
out the direction of the story

Transitional Devices 2. Formal Definition

 First  Consists of three principal parts
 Next  Species (word) + genus (class) + differentiae
 Then  The WORD is the name of the object, process, or
 After concept defined usually followed by “is” and “are”
 Suddenly  The CLASS or general group to which the objects
belong
 Example:
Skimming (word) is a reading technique (class) of
2. Description
allowing the eyes to travel over a page very
 Series of detailed observation about the subject
quickly, stopping only here and there to gain an
 Brings the subject to life in the imagination of the
idea (differentiae)
reader
 Involves the use of adjective and adverbs
 Describe how the subject looks, sounds, feels,
3. Expanded or Extended Definition
smells, and taste are called sensory languages
 Methods used in paragraph development
 How you arrange the details to provide an image
 By stating its characteristics
of the subject
 By its function
 By what it is not
2 Types of Description  By what it is similar to
 By examples
1. Objective description
 By origin of word or etymology
 Impartial and actual picture of the subject without
 By its effect
biases
 Exclude personal impression

2. Subjective description
 Personal impression of what is observed
 Often used in fictional stories
 Transitional Expressions

 Classified as
 One kind
 The last group
 Another kind
 Another
 Final type
 The first category
 Are categorized as
 The next part

5. Comparison and Contrast

 Comparison is about elements that are similar
 Contrast is about element/ideas that are different
 Compare-contrast analyzes two subjects
comparing them, contrasting them, or both
 Its purpose is not to simply state the obvious
 To illustrate subtle differences or unexpected
similarities between the subjects
 Show how these two ideas are similar or different
by showing their advantages and disadvantages to
weigh the pros and cons

2 Ways to Compare-Contrast
4. Exemplification and Classification 1. Subject by subject
 Exemplification  Also known as block method
 Also known as illustration  Used to compare and contrast two subjects one at
 Most common and effective pattern to explain an a time
idea or point  Begin by saying everything about the first subject
 Develop a general statement – the topic sentence, then move on and write everything about the
with examples to support second subject
Transitional Expressions
2. Point by point
 For instance  Address one subject at a time
 Namely  First point + subject 1 and 2. Second point +
 To specify subject 1 and 2 and so on...
 To clarify
 To illustrate
 For example Cohesive Devices
 In short
 As an example For similarities:

 Likewise
 Similar to
 Classification  Same with
 To sort out or arrange subjects into groups or  Like
categories based on their common and shared  In the same manner
characteristics
 Associate similar things by grouping into classes
For contrast:
  On the other hand  After a topic sentence, illustrate the problem by
 However using an extended example (through a story or an
 While anecdote from the introduction)
 Different with
 In contrast and the like
Way to present solutions:

1. Preventive measures
6. Cause and Effect
 Ways to prevent the problem from occurring in
 Explains why something happens
the first place
 States what results in a particular event produces
 For example: How to prevent Covid-19
 Usually gives a statement emphasizing the cause
and another emphasizing the effect
2. A series of steps
 Why did it happen?
 Suggest the easiest and most obvious solution
 What caused it?
first, but if that doesn’t work, try something else,
 What does it cause?
etc.
 What are its effects?
 For example: If you have a neighbor who does not
 How is it related to something else?
wear mask nor practice social distancing, you
Signal Words might first talk to him; if that doesn’t work,
arrange for a mediator; etc. (a last resort might be
For cause: to call a police)
 As a consequence of
 As a result of 3. Advice
 Because of  Give some advice and helpful hints
 Now that
 Since 4. A choice of solutions
 Include solutions that have already been tried,
For effects: have been unsuccessful, and new solutions which
you are proposing
 Accordingly
 Consequently
 Hence
 So Transitional Devices
 Therefore For introductions
 This resulted in
 Nowadays…
 It is a common trend that...
7. Problem- Solution  Society is becoming increasingly concerned
about…
 Presents a problem, discussing its several aspects
 Conclude by discussing solutions to the problem

For middle section/body

The problem may be addressed through:
 For instance
1. Effects only  Such as/like
 Describe the problem only in terms of its effects  Namely
 Use examples

2. Causes and effects For conclusion

 Outline the causes of the problem
 Discuss solutions in terms of preventive measures  In conclusion
 To conclude
3. Extended example  To sum up
8. Persuasion
 State the details through presenting views and
encourages the target readers to accept the
argument
 Persuasive text can be in the form of argument,
discussion, exposition, review, or advertisement
 State the issue first, this will serve as a
background information about the topic
 Followed by a clear, strong, and specific argument
 Argument is one’s claim or position that can
either support or reject the issue
 Argument shall be supported with well-researched
evidence, which will give details on how and why
it supports the argument
 Evidences can be factual, logical, statistical, or
anecdotal
 It can also explain counter-arguments not because
the writer wants to prove which claims are wrong
or right but to enlighten the readers about other
positions
 Conclusion restating the main argument of the
text will be the end of the text, the last statement
to persuade your readers

Guide questions in contrasting persuasive text

 What is the issue?

 What is your position or opinion?
 What is the opposing position/opinion?
 What are some reasons for your position?
 What are some cases or examples that
support this?
Coherence and Transitional Devices

Cohesion  Also called conjunctive adverbs or adverbial

conjunctions
 Two basic features that facilitate textual continuity

Addition
Form or Structure - Again - Also - And
- And then - Finally - First
 One of the most important elements in writing
- Further - Last - Moreover
 Without solid structure in place, the content
- Next - Second - Still
gathered would fall apart
- Furthermore - Too - In addition
 After sequencing the events in paragraph – a
- Equally important - In the first place
group of related sentences that leads to a single
idea

Comparison
Coherence - Also - In the same way
- Likewise - Similarly
 Connection and organization of ideas in a text to
create unity
 Connection of the succeeding sentences to the
topic sentence Concession
 Rhetorical aspects of writing - Granted - Naturally
 Include developing and supporting the argument - Of course
 Synthesizing and integrating readings, organizing
and clarifying ideas
 To achieve, every good paragraph must have unity
Contrast
of idea
 Sentences in a paragraph are unified and directed
by a topic sentence
 Focuses on the overall (macro) structure of the
essay Emphasis
Example: - Certainly - Indeed
- Thesis statement development - In fact - Of course

Cohesion Example/ Illustration

 Unifying ideas by binding words, phrases,

sentences and paragraphs, thus, show
relationships and smooth text flow
 More specific
 Pays attention to links between words and Summary
sentences
 To achieve, know how to use cohesive devices,
certain words or phrases that serve the purpose of
connecting two statements
 Usually by referring back to what you have
previously written or said
Properties of a Well-Written  Unbiased language
Text - Language that is free of racial bias, free of
religious bias, and free of gender bias
1. Organization
 Text organization 1) Informal language
 The way a text organized  Usually used in writing for oneself or in writing to
 Helps to guide the reader logically through it family, friends, and colleagues
 Makes a text readable and its message clear
 Can be achieved through: 2) Formal language
1) Physical format  Used in academic, business, and official texts
 Immediately apparent to the reader
 How the text physically appears
Examples:
2) Structure
 Provides the framework upon which the text is
organized
 Consists of beginning, middle, and end

3) Signal words
 Text clues that readers can use to follow a text
 Signal the transition from one point to another,
the ordering of events and concepts

2. Coherence and Cohesion

 Text with both has a central concept linking all the
ideas in the text
 These ideas are presented in a logical manner

Coherence
 Ideas are logically sequenced in a way that is easy
to follow for the reader
4. Mechanics
 Set of conventions on how to spell, abbreviate,
Cohesion
punctuate, and capitalize
 Unifying ideas by binding words, phrases,
 Conventions that have to be considered in writing
sentences and paragraphs, thus show
relationships and smooth text flow Examples:

- Realibility - Asociation
- Embarrass - Coleague

- I love to paint portraits I would paint one every

day if I had the time

- This book is dedicated to my parents, Noel and

3. Language Use Corazon
 Appropriateness of word/vocabulary use
 Effective language is specific, concise, familiar, - alex is studying in sta ana manila
correct, and appropriate
 Be sensitive to use unbiased language so that it - i work for san miguel corporation
won’t offend any individual
Claims Types of Factual Claims

1) Factual/Historical
 Synonymous to belief, argument, assertion, or
 Based on concrete and verifiable information
stand
about past events or existing facts
 A good claim should be:
 Rely on evidence such as historical records, data,
 Argumentative and debatable
and documented occurrences
 Specific and focused
 Interesting and engaging
 Logical
2) Relational
 Casual connections
 Assert a cause-and-effect relationship between
two or more events or phenomena
Types of information
1. Explicit Information 3) Predictive
 Information stated in the text  Make assertions about future events or outcomes
 Readers can see the piece of information stated in based on current evidence or trends
the given passage  They often involve forecasting or projecting what
might happen
2. Implicit Information
 Information is not directly presented in the text
Proof requires:
 Readers have to read between the lines to
understand the details that the writer is trying to  Sufficient and appropriate grounds
tell  Reliable authority and recent data
 Accurate, typical data
 Clearly defined terms, no loaded language
 Clear distinction between fact and false

Examples:

 The oldest known disease in the world is leprosy.

 Generally, obesity causes health problems.
 Nail Armstrong was the first man to step on the
moon.
 The first Mindanaoan President is Rodrigo
Duterte.
 The earth is warming rapidly.

Types of Claims 2. Claim of Policy

 Advocates a specific course of action
1. Claim of Fact  Asserts that specific policies should be instituted
 Pieces of information which are grounded on as solutions to problems
reliable authority such as science and history  Terms:
 Terms used: - Should - Ought to - Must
- Generally - Probably - As a rule

 To verify whether these statements are claim of Proof requires:

fact or not, ask these questions:
 Making proposed action (clear), need
- Is it debatable?
(justification), plan (must be workable), benefit
- Is it verifiable?
(advantages) consider opposition/counter
- Is it specific?
arguments
- Can it be solved objectively?
Examples:

 The mayor should suspend the classes today.

 You must send your children to public schools.
 The government should legalize medicinal
marijuana.
 The Boy Scouts should not have to include gay
scout leaders.
 Local Malls should not open during the general
community quarantine.

3. Claim of Value
 Involves judgements and evaluations
 Judges whether something is good/bad,
right/wrong, just/unjust, and ethical/nonethical
 Expressions of taste, preferences, and prejudices

Proof requires:

 Establishing standards of evaluation (ex. A warrant

that defines what constitutes instances of the
relevant value)
 Note that priority of the value in this instance
 Establish the advantage (practical or moral) of
your standards
 Use examples to clarify abstract values
 Use credible authorities for support

Examples:

 It is better to be feared than loved.

 Cheating is not good.
 Gay marriage is immoral.
 Buying a house is a lot better than building it.
 Rock music sucks.
 The government is doing a great job during the
Covid-19 pandemic.