Modular Artithmetic

Modular arithmetic is a system of arithmetic for integers, which considers the remainder. In
modular arithmetic, numbers "wrap around" upon reaching a given fixed quantity (this given
quantity is known as the modulus) to leave a remainder.
An intuitive usage of modular arithmetic is with a 12-hour clock. If it is 10:00 now, then in 5
hours the clock will show 3:00 instead of 15:00. 3 is the remainder of 15 with a modulus of 12.
A number x mod N is the equivalent of asking for the remainder of x when divided by N. Two
integers a and b are said to be congruent (or in the same equivalence class) modulo N if they
have the same remainder upon division by N. In such a case, we say that a ≡ b (mod N). a ≡ b
(mod N).
Modular Arithmetic as Remainders
The easiest way to understand modular arithmetic is to think of it as finding the remainder of a
number upon division by another number. For example, since both 15 and -9 leave the same
remainder 3 when divided by 12, we say that
15 ≡ −9 (mod 12).
15 ≡ −9 (mod 12).
This allows us to have a simple way of doing modular arithmetic: first perform the usual
arithmetic, and then find the remainder. For example, to find 123+321(mod11)​ , we can take
123+321 = 444
and divide it by 11, which gives us,
123+321 ≡ 4 (mod 11).
However, this could get messy when the numbers get larger. One approach that we could take
is to first find the remainders of 123 and 321 when divided by 11 (the remainders are both 2),
perform the usual arithmetic, and find the remainder again.
In this example, since 123 ≡ 2 (mod 11), and 321 ≡ 2 (mod11) we can conclude that,
123+321 ≡ 2+2 (mod11)
≡4 (mod11).
Congruence
For a positive integer n, the integers a and b are congruent mod n if their remainders when
divided by n are the same.
52 ≡ 24 (mod 7)
As we can see above, 52 and 24 are congruent (mod 7) because 52 (mod 7) = 3 and 24 (mod
7) =3.
Note that = is different from ≡.
 Another way of defining this is that integers a and b are congruent mod n if their difference
(a−b) is an integer multiple of n, that is, if ​has a remainder of 0.
36 ≡10 (mod 13)
36 and 10 are said to be congruent (mod 13) because their difference 36−10=26 is an integer
multiple of n = 13, that is, 26 =2×13.
Addition
Properties of addition in modular arithmetic:

It is currently 7:00 PM. What time (in AM or PM) will it be in 1000 hours?
Time "repeats" every 24 hours, so we work modulo 24. Since
1000 ≡ 16+(24×41) ≡ 16 (mod 24),
the time in 1000 hours is equivalent to the time in 16 hours. Therefore, it will be 11:00 AM in
1000 hours.

Multiplication

What is (8×16) (mod 7)?

Since 8 ≡ 1 (mod7) and 16 ≡ 2 (mod 7), we have
(8×16) ≡ (1×2) ≡2 (mod 7).
Exponentiation
Since exponentiation is repeated multiplication, we have the following:
We can write aa in the form of a = N p+b, where pp is some integer. Then we have

Now notice how all the terms of this sum are multiples of N, except the last when I = k. Hence

Division
This is tricky. Consider 4 ≡ 8 (mod 4). Note that we cannot simply divide both sides of the
equation by 2, since 2 are not equivalent to 4 (mod 4). This shows that, in general, division is
not well defined. As the following property shows, if we add the condition that k, N are coprime,
then division becomes well defined.

This property is true because if k (a−b) is a multiple of N and gcd (k, N) =1gcd, then N must
divide a−b, or equivalently, a ≡ b (mod N).
Multiplicative Inverses
The modular inverse of aa in the ring of integers modulo mm is an integer xx such that
ax ≡ 1(mod m).
If a and N are integers such that gcd (a, N) = 1, then there exists an integer x such that ax ≡ 1
(mod N).
x is called the multiplicative inverse of a modulo N.
 Functions
The relation shows the relationship between INPUT and OUTPUT. Whereas, a function is a
relation which derives one OUTPUT for each given INPUT.
Note: All functions are relations, but not all relations are functions.

A function is a relation which describes that there should be only one output for each input (or)
we can say that a special kind of relation (a set of ordered pairs), which follows a rule i.e., every
X-value should be associated with only one y-value is called a function.

Domain Range

-1 -3

1 3

3 9

Domain It is a collection of the first values in the ordered pair (Set of all input (x) values).

Range It is a collection of the second values in the ordered pair (Set of all output (y) values).

Example:
In the relation, {(-2, 3), {4, 5), (6, -5), (-2, 3)},
The domain is {-2, 4, 6} and range is {-5, 3, 5}.
Note: Don’t consider duplicates while writing the domain and range and also write it in
increasing order.
Types of Functions
In terms of relations, we can define the types of functions as:
●​ One to one function or Injective function: A function f: P → Q is said to be one to one
if for each element of P there is a distinct element of Q.
●​ Many to one function: A function which maps two or more elements of P to the same
element of set Q.
●​ Onto Function or Surjective function: A function for which every element of set Q
there is pre-image in set P
●​ One-one correspondence or Bijective function: The function f matches with each
element of P with a discrete element of Q and every element of Q has a pre-image in P.

What is the Relation?

●​ It is a subset of the Cartesian product. Or simply, a bunch of points (ordered pairs). In
other words, the relation between the two sets is defined as the collection of the ordered
pair, in which the ordered pair is formed by the object from each set.
●​ Example: {(-2, 1), (4, 3), (7, -3)}, usually written in set notation form with curly brackets.

Equivalent Relations

1​ Equivalence Relation

Definition 1. An equivalence relation is a relationship on a set, generally denoted by “∼”, that

is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive for everything in the set.
1.​ (Reflexivity) a ∼ a,
2.​ (Symmetry) if a ∼ b then b ∼ a,
3.​ (Transitivity) if a ∼ b and b ∼ c then a ∼ c.
Equivalence relations are often used to group together objects that are similar, or “equiv- alent”,
in some sense.
Example: The relation “is equal to”, denoted “=”, is an equivalence relation on the set of real
numbers since for any x, y, z ∈ R:
4.​ (Reflexivity) x = x,
5.​ (Symmetry) if x = y then y = x,
6.​ (Transitivity) if x = y and y = z then x = z. All of these are true.
Example: Let “'” denote the relation on the set of symmetric matrices (recall symmetric means A
= At) defined as follows. A ' B if A = Bt. This is an equivalence relation since for any symmetric
matrices A, B, C:
 1.​ (Reflexivity) A ' A since A = At.
2.​ (Symmetry) If A ' B then A = Bt, but then B = (Bt)t = (A)t = At. And this implies B ' A.
3.​ (Transitivity) If A ' B and B ' C then A = Bt and B = Ct. Of course, since these are
symmetric matrices, we know B = Bt. Thus A = Bt = B = Ct, and therefore A ' C.
Non-example: The relation “is less than or equal to”, denoted “≤”, is NOT an equivalence
relation on the set of real numbers. For any x, y, z ∈ R, “≤” is reflexive and transitive but NOT
necessarily symmetric.
1.​ (Reflexivity) Of course x ≤ x is true since x = x.
2.​ (Symmetry) If x ≤ y then it is not necessarily true that y ≤ x. For example, 5 ≤ 7, but 7
not greater than or equal to 5.
3.​ (Transitivity) If x ≤ y and y ≤ z then x ≤ z since x ≤ y ≤ z.