Tunnel Diode

 A Tunnel diode is a heavily doped p-n junction diode in which the electric current decreases

as the voltage increases.

 In tunnel diode, electric current is caused by “Tunneling”.

 The tunnel diode is used as a very fast switching device in computers. It is also used in high-

frequency oscillators and amplifiers.

 We know that a anode is a positively charged electrode which attracts electrons
whereas cathode is a negatively charged electrode which emits electrons.
 In tunnel diode, n-type semiconductor emits or produces electrons so it is referred
to as the cathode.
 On the other hand, p-type semiconductor attracts electrons emitted from the n-
type semiconductor so p-type semiconductor is referred to as the anode.
 Tunnel diodes are one of the most significant solid-state electronic devices which have made
their appearance in the last decade.

 Tunnel diode was invented in 1958 by Leo Esaki.

 Leo Esaki observed that if a semiconductor diode is heavily doped with impurities, it will
exhibit negative resistance.

 Negative resistance means the current across the tunnel diode decreases when the voltage
increases.

 In 1973 Leo Esaki received the Nobel Prize in physics for discovering the electron tunneling
effect used in these diodes.

 In electronics, tunneling means a direct flow of electrons across the small depletion region
from n-side conduction band into the p-side valence band.
 The germanium material is commonly used to make the tunnel diodes.
 They are also made from other types of materials such as gallium arsenide, gallium
antimoni, and silicon.
 The depletion region is a region in a p-n junction diode where mobile charge carriers (free
electrons and holes) are absent.
 Depletion region acts like a barrier that opposes the flow of electrons from the n-type semiconductor
and holes from the p-type semiconductor.
 The width of a depletion region depends on the number of impurities added.
 Impurities are the atoms introduced into the p-type and n-type semiconductor to increase electrical
conductivity.
 If a small number of impurities are added to the p-n junction diode (p-type and n-type semiconductor),
a wide depletion region is formed.
 On the other hand, if large number of impurities are added to the p-n junction diode, a narrow depletion
region is formed.
 In tunnel diode, the p-type and n-type semiconductor is heavily doped which means a large number of
impurities are introduced into the p-type and n-type semiconductor.
 This heavy doping process produces an extremely narrow depletion region. The concentration of impurities
in tunnel diode is 1000 times greater than the normal p-n junction diode.
 Unlike the normal p-n junction diode, the width of a depletion layer in tunnel diode is extremely narrow.
 So applying a small voltage is enough to produce electric current in tunnel diode.
 Tunnel diodes are capable of remaining stable for a long duration of time than the ordinary p-n junction
diodes.
 They are also capable of high-speed operations.
 Concept of tunneling

 The depletion region or depletion layer in a p-n junction diode is made up of positive ions and negative ions.

 Because of these positive and negative ions, there exists a built-in-potential or electric field in the depletion region.

 This electric field in the depletion region exerts electric force in a direction opposite to that of the external electric field

(voltage).

 Another thing we need to remember is that the valence band and conduction band energy levels in the n-type

semiconductor are slightly lower than the valence band and conduction band energy levels in the p-type semiconductor.

 This difference in energy levels is due to the differences in the energy levels of the dopant atoms (donor or acceptor atoms)

used to form the n-type and p-type semiconductor.

When a forward bias voltage is applied to the
ordinary p-n junction diode, the width of
depletion region decreases and at the same time
the barrier height also decreases.
However, the electrons in the n-type
semiconductor cannot penetrate through the
depletion layer because the built-in voltage of
depletion layer opposes the flow of electrons.

 If the applied voltage is greater than the built-in voltage of depletion layer, the
electrons from n-side overcomes the opposing force from depletion layer and then
enters into p-side.
 In simple words, the electrons can pass over the barrier (depletion layer) if
the energy of the electrons is greater than the barrier height or barrier potential.
 Therefore, an ordinary p-n junction diode produces electric
current only if the applied voltage is greater than the built-in
voltage of the depletion region
 Electric current in tunnel diode

In tunnel diode, the valence band and conduction band energy levels
in the n-type semiconductor are lower than the valence band and
conduction band energy levels in the p-type semiconductor.
Unlike the ordinary p-n junction diode, the difference in energy levels
is very high in tunnel diode. Because of this high difference in energy
levels, the conduction band of the n-type material overlaps with the
valence band of the p-type material.
Quantum mechanics says that the electrons will directly penetrate
through the depletion layer or barrier if the depletion width is very
small.
 Zener Diode
A heavily doped p-n junction diode that works in reverse bias
conditions is called a Zener Diode.
They are special semiconductor devices that allow the current to flow
in both forward and backward directions.
For the Zener diode, the voltage drop across the diode is always
constant irrespective of the applied voltage. Thus, Zener diodes are
used as a voltage regulator.
when the electric field increases to a high value it enables the
tunnelling of electrons from the valence band to the conduction band
of a semiconductor, which suddenly increases the reverse current.
A theoretical physicist working at Bell Labs was the first man to
describe the electrical properties of Zener Diode.
His name was Clarence Melvin Zener, he was the first to tell about
this special diode that works on reverse bias conditions so the diode is
named after him Zener Diode.
He first postulated the breakdown effect in a paper published in 1934.
Zener diode that is also known as a breakdown diode is a heavily
doped semiconductor device that has been specially designed to
operate in the reverse direction.
When the potential reaches the Zener voltage which is also known as
Knee voltage and the voltage across the terminal of the Zener diode is
reversed, at that point time, the junction breaks down and the current
starts flowing in the reverse direction.
This effect is known as the Zener effect.
In reverse biasing, the P-type material of the diode is connected with the
negative terminal of the power supply, and the n-type material is connected
with the positive terminal of the power supply.
The diode consists of a very thin depletion region as it is made up of
heavily doped semiconductor material.
There are two tags at the end of the bar in the circuit symbol of the Zener
diode, one in the upward direction and the other in the lower direction, as
shown in the figure given below. In this way, we can easily distinguish
between the Zener diode and other diodes.
 Zener Diode Working
this diode also works even if the voltage applied is very small.
In no biasing condition of the Zener diode, all the electrons accumulate in
the valence band of the p-type semiconductor material and thus no current
flow occurs through the diode.
In reverse bias conditions, if the Zener voltage is equal to the supplied
voltage, the diode conducts electricity in the direction of reverse bias.
When the Zener voltage equals the supplied voltage the depletion layer
vanishes completely.
As we keep increasing the reverse voltage it reaches a point where the
reverse voltage equals the breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage is
represented as Vz and in this condition the current start flowing in the
diode. After the breakdown voltage the current increase drastically until it
reaches a stable value.
 Avalanche Breakdown Zener Breakdown
Avalanche breakdown occurs when the high voltage Zener breakdown happens when electrons from the
increase the free electron in the semiconductor and a valance band gain energy and reaches the conduction
sudden increase in current is seen. band which then conducts electricity.

Avalanche breakdown is seen in the diodes having Zener breakdown is seen in the diodes having
breakdown voltage greater than 8 volts. breakdown voltage in the range of 5 to 8 volts.

Avalanche breakdown is observed in diodes that are Zener breakdown is observed in diodes that are highly
lightly doped. doped.
In the Avalanche breakdown, the VI characteristics
curve is not as sharp as the VI characteristics curve in
Zener Breakdown has a sharp VI characteristics curve.
the Zener breakdown.

For Avalanche breakdown increase in temperature For Zener breakdown increase in temperature decreases
increases the breakdown voltage. the breakdown voltage.
I-V Characteristics of Zener Diode
Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode
Forward characteristics of the Zener Diode are similar to the forward
characteristics of any normal diode.
The first quadrant that the VI forward characteristics are similar to other P-
N junction diodes.
Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode
In reverse voltage conditions a small amount of current flows through the
Zener diode.
This current is because of the electrons which are thermally generated in
the Zener diode.
As we keep increasing the reverse voltage at any particular value of reverse
voltage the reverse current increases suddenly at the breakdown point this
voltage is called Zener Voltage and is represented as Vz.
 Applications of Zener Diode

Zener diode as Voltage Regulator

• Zener diode is utilized as a Shunt voltage controller for managing
voltage across little loads.
Zener Diode in Over-Voltage Protection
• At the point when the info voltage is higher than the Zener breakage
voltage, the voltage across the resistor drops bringing about a short-
out.
Zener Diode in Clipping Circuits
• Zener diode is utilized for adjusting AC waveform cutting circuits by
restricting the pieces of it is possible that one or both the half patterns
of an AC waveform
 P-N junction Diode
Junction generally means the area or point that bounds two different
parts, similarly in diodes junction is a boundary of two semiconductor
materials i.e. the p-type and the n-type, semiconductor.
The p-side in the p-n junction has a positive side of the semiconductor
and it has an excess of holes whereas the n-side has an excess of
electrons, therefore, it is the negative side.
The p-n junction in semiconductors is developed by the method of
doping. adding impurities in a semiconductor is known as doping.
There are two types of processes that follow after the formation of a
p-n junction – diffusion and drift.
Diffusion is the process that follows the flow of particles from higher
concentration to lower concentration, due to difference in the
concentration of electrons and holes at the two sides of a junction,
The electrons from the n-side diffuse to the p-side, and
The holes from the p-side diffuse to the n-side.
This leads to a rise in diffusion current.
Also, there is an ionized donor is left behind on the n-side, which is an
immobile charge this develop when an electron diffuses from the n-
side to the p-side.
As the result of this process, a layer of positive charge is developed on
the n-side of the junction.
Similarly, An ionized acceptor is left behind in the p-side when a hole
goes from the p-side to the n-side, resulting in the formation of a layer
of negative charges in the p-side of the junction.
This region of negative (-) and positive charge (+) on either side of the
junction is termed the depletion region.
 Forward Bias
In forward bias the direction of built-in electric field near the junction and
applied electric field are opposite in direction. this means that the resultant
electric field has a magnitude lesser than the built-in electric field.
Due to this there is less resistivity and therefore depletion region is thinner.
In silicon, at the voltage of 0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion region
becomes completely negligible.
 Reverse Bias
The applied electric field and the built-in electric field are in the same
direction and the resultant of electric field has higher magnitude than the
built-in electric field creating a more resistive, therefore depletion region is
thicker.
If the applied voltage becomes larger, then the depletion region becomes
more resistive and thicker.
I-V Characteristics of p-n Junction Diode
When the diode is in forward bias, as the voltage applied to the diode is
overcoming the potential barrier, the current increases slowly and the curve
obtained is non-linear.
Once the potential barrier is crossed by the diode, the diode behaves
normally and the curve rises sharply as further external voltage increases
and the curve obtained is linear.
When the PN junction diode is under reverse bias, this results in an
increase in the potential barrier and resistance also increases.
Minority carriers are present in the junction which creates reverse saturation
current flows in the beginning.
If the applied voltage increases rapidly, there is increased kinetic energy due
to minority charge carriers which affect the majority charges.
In this stage the diode breaks down. or the voltage is called breakdown
voltage, This may also destroy the diode.