St.

PAUL’S DEGREE & PG COLLEGE

(Affiliated to Osmania University)
Street No. 8, Himayathnagar, Hyderabad. Ph.No: 27602533

Fundamentals Of Information Technology

B. Com (Comp App)
UNIT-II

A binary number is a number expressed in the base-2 numeral system or binary numeral system, a method of
mathematical expression which uses only two symbols: typically "0" (zero) and "1" (one).

Number system:

The technique to represent and work with numbers is called number system.

Number systems are classified into:

(a) Positional Number System

(b) Non-Positional Number System

(A) Positional Number System

Positional Number System uses digits for the representation. According to its position of occurrence in the number,

each digit is weighted. Towards the left the weights increases by a constant factor equivalent to the base or

radix. With the help of the radix point (‘.’).

Ex:13.58 = 1 x 101 + 3 x 100 + 5 x 10-1 + 8 x 10-2

Positional Number System is further classified into:

(1) Binary Number System

Binary Number System is a base 2 number system having only 2 digits 0 and 1. Example:Binary Number:

101012

=((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

=2110

(2) Octal Number System

Octal Number System is a base 8 number system having eight digits from 0 to 7.
125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10

=549610

(3) Decimal Number System

Decimal Number System is a base 10 number system having ten digits from 0 to 9.
1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the
thousands position. Its value can be written as

(1 x 1000)+ (2 x 100)+ (3 x 10)+ (4 x l)

(1 x 103)+ (2 x 102)+ (3 x 101)+ (4 x l00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234

(4) Hexadecimal Number System

Hexadecimal Number System is a base 16 number system having sixteen digits from 0 to F. 0 to 9 is represented

similar to the decimal number systems and the digits from 10 to 15 are represented as A to F.

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 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x 160))10

((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x 160))10

10646210

(B) Non-Positional Number System

Non-Positional Number System does not use digits for the representation instead it use symbols for the representation.

Non-positional number system is used for shift position encodes and error detecting purpose.
Few examples of non-weighted number system are gray code, roman code, excess-3 code, etc.

Binary arithmetic:

Binary arithmetic is essential part of all the digital computers and many other digital system.

Binary Addition:
It is a key for binary subtraction, multiplication, division. There are four rules of binary addition.

In fourth case, a binary addition is creating a sum of (1 + 1 = 10) i.e. 0 is written in the given column and a carry of
1 over to the next column.

In fourth case, a binary addition is creating a sum of (1 + 1 = 10) i.e. 0 is written in the given column and a carry of
1 over to the next column.

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Example − Addition

Binary Subtraction:

Subtraction and Borrow, these two words will be used very frequently for the binary subtraction. There are four rules
of binary subtraction.
There are four rules for binary subtraction:

Example − Subtraction

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Binary Multiplication:

Binary multiplication is similar to decimal multiplication. It is simpler than decimal multiplication because only 0s
and 1s are involved. There are four rules of binary multiplication.

Example − Multiplication

Binary Division:
Binary division is similar to decimal division. It is called as the long division procedure. There are four
parts in any division: Dividend, Divisor, quotient, and remainder.

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Example − Division

Memory:

Computer memory is the storage space where data is to be processed, and instructions needed for processing are
stored. The memory is divided into a large number of smaller portions called the cell. Every cell/ location has a
unique address and a size.

Two types of memories are:

• Primary Memory
• Secondary Memory
Primary memory vs Secondary memory:

Parameter Primary Memory Secondary Memory

The primary memory is

The secondary memory is always a
Nature categorized as volatile &
non-volatile memory.
nonvolatile memories.

Secondary memory is known as a

These memories are also
Alias Backup memory or Additional memory or
called internal memory.
Auxiliary memory.

Data cannot be accessed directly by Data is

directly accessed the processor. It is first copied from
Access
by the processing unit. secondary memory to primary memory. Only
then CPU can access it.

It’s a volatile memory It’s a non-volatile memory so that that

meaning data cannot be data can be retained even after retained in case of
Formation
power power
failure.

It holds data or information

that is currently being used
It stores a substantial amount of data and
by the processing unit.
Storage information. Capacity is generally from
Capacity is usually in 16 to
200GB to terabytes.
32 GB

Primary memory can be

Secondary memory is accessed by I/O
Accesses accessed by the data bus.
channels.

Primary memory is costlier Secondary memory is cheaper than than

Expense
secondary memory.

Primary Memory:

Primary Memory is the main memory of the computer system. Accessing data from primary memory is faster
because it is an internal memory of the computer. The primary memory is most volatile, meaning data in primary
memory does not exist if it is not saved when a power failure occurs.

The primary memory is a semiconductor memory. It is costlier compared with secondary memory. The capacity of
primary memory is very much limited and is always smaller compares to secondary memory.

Two types of Primary Memory are:

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Primary Memory is of two types:

1. RAM and

2.ROM.

1. RAM (Volatile Memory)

It is a volatile memory. It means it does not store data or instructions permanently. When you switch on the computer
the data and instructions from the hard disk are stored in RAM.

CPU utilizes this data to perform the required tasks. As soon as you shut down the computer the RAM loses all the
data.

RAM is of two types −

• Static RAM (SRAM)

• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied. However, data is
lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors.
Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage space,
making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache memory and has very fast access.

Characteristic of Static RAM

• Long life
• No need to refresh
• Faster
• Used as cache memory
• Large size
• Expensive
• High power consumption

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 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory
on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory
as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one
transistor.

Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

• Short data lifetime

• Needs to be refreshed continuously
• Slower as compared to SRAM
• Used as RAM
• Smaller in size
• Less expensive
• Less power consumption

2. ROM (Non-volatile Memory)

It is a non-volatile memory. It means it does not lose its data or programs that are written on it at the time of
manufacture. So it is a permanent memory that contains all important data and instructions needed to perform
important tasks like the boot process.

Types of Read Only Memory (ROM) –

1. PROM (Programmable read-only memory) – It can be programmed by the user. Once programmed,
the data and instructions in it cannot be changed.

2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable read only memory) – It can be reprogrammed. To erase data from it, expose it
to ultraviolet light. To reprogram it, erase all the previous data.

3. EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read only memory) – The data can be erased by applying an
electric field, with no need for ultraviolet light. We can erase only portions of the chip.

Secondary Memory:

The secondary storage devices which are built into the computer or connected to the computer are known as a
secondary memory of the computer. It is also known as external memory or auxiliary storage.

The secondary memory is accessed indirectly via input/output operations. It is non-volatile, so permanently stores the
data even when the computer is turned off or until this data is overwritten or deleted. The CPU can't directly access
the secondary memory. First, the secondary memory data is transferred to primary memory then the CPU can access
it.Some of the secondary memory or storage devices are described below:

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1. Magnetic Disk Memory

Magnetic Disk is type of secondary memory which is a flat disc covered with magnetic coating to hold information. It
is used to store various programs and files. The polarized information in one direction is represented by 1, and vice
versa. The direction is indicated by 0.
Magnetic disk are less expensive than RAM and can store large amounts of data, but data access rate is slower than
main memory because of secondary memory. Data can be modified or can be deleted easily in the magnetic disk
memory. It also allows random access of data.

2. MagneticTape
In magnetic tape only one side of the ribbon is used for storing data. It is sequential memory which contains thin
plastic ribbon to store data and coated by magnetic oxide. Data read/write speed is slower because of sequential
access. It is highly reliable which requires magnetic tape drive writing and reading data.

The width of the ribbon varies from 4mm to 1 Inch and it has storage capacity 100 MB to 200 GB.

3. Tape Cartridge:
A tape cartridge is a storage device that contains a spool of magnetic tape used to store different kinds of data,
from corporate data to audio and video files. Each cartridge is designed to fit into a compatible audio/video
recorder system or computer system.

A magnetic tape cartridge is an essential component of a robust backup system, which makes use of tape libraries for
long-term backup storage. The tape cartridge is the actual piece of hardware that data is saved to; through an
autoloader or a robot, the cartridge is inserted into one of many tape drives within a tape library unit for reading and
writing.

Because of the nature of the tape cartridge, only sequential writing and reading are possible, so if a specific file
needs to be located, the tape drive must read the tape cartridge from the beginning of the spool until it reaches the
specific file location. This can take time and is the biggest drawback of a storage system using magnetic tape
cartridges. However, tape is cheaper per gigabyte compared to hard drives and solid-state drives, making it ideal for
long-term storage archiving.

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4. Floppy Disk

A floppy disk is a type of storage media that reads data storage information, also known as a floppy diskette, floppy, or
floppy disk that is used to store electronic data, like a computer file. It was extremely expensive as it was one of the first
types of hardware storage created in 1967 by IBM, which could read/write a portable device.

When it was first invented, users were unable to write data to them, like CD-ROM, and it was 8 inches in diameter.
This disk was only able to store 80KB of data, but later versions became capable of storing as much as 800KB. it
contained four basic components:

o Magnetic read/write heads

o Containing all of the electronics, it includes a circuit board.
o It comprises a lever with a frame that helps to open and close the device.
o It is placed through a spindle clamping device because it is spinning 300 to 360 rotations every minute.

5. Hard Disk:

It is a rigid magnetic disc that is used to store data. It permanently stores data and is located within a drive unit.

The hard disk is also known as a hard drive. It is a rigid magnetic disc that stores data permanently, as it is a non-
volatile storage device. The hard disk is located within a drive unit on the computer's motherboard and comprises one
or more platters packed in an air-sealed casing. The data is written on the platters by moving a magnetic head over the
platters as they spin. The data stored on a computer's hard drive generally includes the operating system, installed
software, and the user's files and programs, including pictures, music, videos, text documents, etc.

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Components of Hard Drive:

The main components of a hard drive include a head actuator, read/write actuator arm, read/write head, platter, and
spindle. A circuit board, which is called the disk controller or interface board, is present on the back of a hard drive. It
allows the hard drive to communicate with the computer.

6. Solid-state Drive:

SSD (Solid State Drive) is also a non-volatile storage medium that is used to hold and access data. Unlike a hard drive, it
does not have moving components, so it offers many advantages over SSD, such as faster access time, noiseless
operation, less power consumption, and more.

As the cost of SSD has come down, it has become an ideal replacement for a standard hard drive in desktop and laptop
computers. It is also suitable for notebooks, and tablets that don't require lots of storage.

7. Pen drive:

Pen drive is a compact secondary storage device. It is also known as a USB flash drive, thumb drive or a jump drive. It
connects to a computer via a USB port. It is commonly used to store and transfer data between computers. For
example, you can write a report using a computer and then copy or transfer it in the pen drive. Later, you can connect
this pen drive to a computer to see or edit your report. You can also store your important documents and pictures,
music, videos in the pen drive and keep it at a safe place.Pen drive does not have movable parts; it comprises an
integrated circuit memory chip that stores the data. This chip is housed inside a plastic or aluminium casing. The data
storage capacity

of the pen drive generally ranges from 2 GB to 128 GB. Furthermore, it is a plug and play device as you don't need
additional drives, software, or hardware to use it.

SD Card:

SD Card stands for Secure Digital Card. It is most often used in portable and mobile devices such as smartphones and
digital cameras. You can remove it from your device and see the things stored in it using a computer with a card
reader.
There are many memory chips inside the SD card that store the data; it does not have moving parts. SD cards are not
created equal, so they may differ from each other in terms of speed, physical sizes, and capacity. For example,
standard SD cards, mini SD cards, and micro SD cards.
Optical Disc:

An optical disc is an electronic data storage medium that is also referred to as

an optical disk, optical storage, optical media, Optical disc drive, disc drive,
which reads and writes data by using optical storage techniques and
technology. An optical disc, which may be used as a portable and secondary
storage device, was first

developed in the late 1960s. James T. Russell invented the first optical disc,
which could store data as micron-sized light and dark dots.

An optical disc can store more data and has a longer lifespan than the
preceding generation of magnetic storage medium. To read and write to CDs
and DVDs, computers use a CD writer or DVD writer drive, and to read and
write to Blu-ray discs, they require a Blu-ray drive. MO drives, such as CD-R
and DVD-R drives, are used to read and write information to discs (magneto-
optic). The CDs, Blu-ray, and DVDs are the most common types of optical
media, which are usually used to:

o They are used to transfer data to various devices or

computers.
o These media are used to deliver the software to others.
o They help users to hold large amounts of data, like videos, photos,
music, and more.
o Also, optical media are used to get back up from a local machine.

With the introduction of an all-new generation of optical media, the storage

capacity to store data has increased. CDs have the potential to store 700 MB
of data, whereas DVDs allow you to store up to 8.4 GB of data. Blu-ray discs,
the newest type of optical media, can hold up to 50 GB of data. This storage
capacity is the most convenient benefit as compared to the floppy disk storage
media, which can store up to 1.44 MB of data.ures of Java - Javatpoint

There is a need to be noted, a CD drive can only have the ability to read CDs,
and a DVD drive can read CDs and DVDs. Additionally, a Blu-ray, a new type of
optical media that can read CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs. In other words,
older drives are not able to read newer optical discs, but the latest drives
have the ability to read older optical discs.

How optical storage discs are made

The basic sandwich of materials structure is used by all recent optical disc
formats. The base is formed by using a hard-plastic substrate, and a reflective
layer of metallic foil is used for encoding the digital data. Next, a clear
polycarbonate layer secures the foil and enables the laser beam to move via
the reflective foil layer.

Optical discs include different materials in the sandwich, which are dependent
on the type of disc, whether it is rewritable or write- once. In write-once CD-
ROM, an organic dye layer is located between the polycarbonate and
unwritten reflective foil. Because they replace the aluminium foil with an alloy
that is a phase-change material, rewritable optical discs may be erased and
rewritten several times.

What optical disc can hold the most?

Blu-ray discs, which are the newest type of optical media, have the potential to
store the most, up to 50 GB of data. BD-R (Blu-ray recordable) is available in
the market with a storage capacity of 25 GB or 50 GB.

Advantages of Optical Disk

There are various benefits of the optical disk, which are as follows: Cost

Durability

Simplicity Stability

Portability

Blu-ray disc:

In the commercial market, Blu-ray drives are the newest drives available as of
2011. During the early 2000s, Sony developed the Blu-ray technology that was
one of the founding proponents

The Blu-ray Disc (BD), often known simply as Blu-ray, is a

digital optical disc storage format. It is designed to supersede the DVD
format, and capable of storing several hours of high- definition video (HDTV
720p and 1080p). The main application of Blu-ray is as a medium for video
material such as feature films and for the physical distribution of video games.

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Compact Disk (CD):

Compact Disk is a portable secondary storage device in the shape of a round medium disk. It is made

of polycarbonate plastic. The concept of CD was co-developed by Philips and Sony in 1982. The first CD was created on
17 August 1982 at the workshop of Philips in Germany.

In the beginning, it was used for storing and playing sound recordings, later it was used for various purposes such as
for storing documents, audio files, videos, and other data like software programs in a CD.

DVD:

DVD is short for digital versatile disc or digital video disc. It is a type of optical media used for storing optical data.
Although it has the same size as a CD, its storage capacity is much more than a CD. So, it is widely used for storing and
viewing movies and to distribute software programs as they are too large to fit on a CD. DVD was co-developed by
Sony, Panasonic, Philips, and Toshiba in 1995.

Types of DVDs:

DVDs can be divided into three main categories which are as follows:

o DVD-ROM (Read-Only): These types of DVDs come with media already recorded on them, such as movie
dvds. As the name suggests, data on these discs cannot be erased or added, so these discs are known as a
read-only or non-writable DVD.
o DVD-R (Writable): It allows you to record or write information to the DVD. However, you can write
information only once as it becomes a read-only DVD once it is full.
o DVD-RW (Rewritable or Erasable): This type of discs can be erased, written, or recorded multiple times.

8. ZIP DRIVE:

o The Zip drive is a removable floppy disk storage system that was introduced by Iomega in late 1994.
Considered medium-to-high-capacity at the time of its release, Zip disks were originally launched with
capacities of 100 MB, then 250 MB, and finally 750 MB.

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 o The format became the most popular of the superfloppy products which filled a niche in the late 1990s
portable storage market. However, it was never popular enough to replace
the 3+1⁄2-inch floppy disk. Zip drives fell out of favor for mass portable storage during the early 2000s as CD-
RW and USB flash drives became prevalent. The Zip brand later covered internal and external CD writers
known as Zip-650 or Zip-CD, which have no relation to the Zip drive.

9. Flash Drive:

A flash drive is a portable computer drive that uses flash memory. Flash drives are the larger memory modules
consisting of a number of flash chips. A flash chip is used to read the contents of a single cell, but it can write entire
block of cells.

A USB flash drive (i.e. thumb drive)[1][note 1] is a data storage device that includes flash memory with an integrated USB
interface. It is typically removable, rewritable and much smaller than an optical disc.

Cache memory:

The cache memory basically acts as a buffer between the main memory and the CPU. Moreover, it synchronizes with
the speed of the CPU. Besides, it stores the data and instructions which the CPU uses more frequently so that it does
not have to access the main memory again and again. Therefore the average time to access the main memory
decreases.

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