Chapter 5

Cellular Telephone
 Cellular Telephony

•
•

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 Early Mobile Telephone Systems
 One high-power transmitter
was used to cover a large
area--- approx. 50km.
Located at a very high spot.
 The mobiles were
simultaneously connected
using different Frequency
channels.
 Capacity of such systems
was very limited.

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 Early Mobile Telephone Systems

Drawbacks:
• High power
consumption
• Large size of the mobile
• No Frequency
reuse(spectrum
Congestion)
• Low capacity

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 System Architecture

 The design objective of

early mobile radio
systems was to achieve
a large coverage area
using a single, high
powered transmitter with
an antenna mounted on a
tall tower
 The base station itself is
connected to the wired
telephone network.

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System Architecture
• A base station provides
coverage (communication
capabilities) to users on
mobile phones within its
coverage area.
• Users outside the
coverage area
receive/transmit signals
with too low amplitude for
reliable communications.
• Users within the coverage
area transmit and receive
signals from the base
station.

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Base Station

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 Early Mobile Telephony
• Early mobile telephony systems were not
cellular.
 Coverage over a large area was provided by a high
powered transmitter mounted on a tall tower.
 Frequency reuse was not employed.
 That resulted in very low capacity.
 Solution:
• The cellular concept arose from the need to
restructure the radio telephone system with the
increase in demand.
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Cellular concept
• The cellular concept is a system-level
idea which calls for replacing a single,
high power transmitter (large cell) with
many low power transmitters (small
cells), each providing coverage to only a
small portion of the service area.

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 Cellular concept… Cont’d
• Thus, instead of one
high power base
station covering an
entire region, the region
was broken up into
cells, or smaller
coverage areas.
• Each of these smaller
coverage areas had its
own lower-power base
station.
• User phones in one cell
communicate with the
base station in that cell.

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 Basic Components

 Three basic
Components
 A mobile station
 A base
transceiver
 A Mobile
Telecommunica
tions Switching
Office (MTSO)

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Cellular concept
 Partition the region into smaller regions
called cells.
 Each cell gets at least one base station
or tower
 Users within a cell talks to the tower
 How can we divide the region into cells?

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“Cell”ular Structure
• Cellular Concepts refers
to the use of a group of
cells to provide
communication from one
place to another place
when the user is mobile.
• The group of cells is
termed as a cluster
• Each cell has Hexagonal
coverage area

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 Cellular concept… Cont’d
 With hexagonal
coverage area, a
cellular network is
drawn as shown in
figure

• Since the network resembles cells from a honeycomb, the

name cellular was used to describe the resulting mobile
telephone network.
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 A cluster in cellular Concept

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Operation of Cellular Systems
 Base stations transmit to and receive from mobile
stations at the assigned spectrum
 Multiple base stations use the same spectrum (spectral
reuse)
 The service area of each base station is called a cell
 Each mobile terminal is typically served by the
‘closest’ base stations
 Handoff when terminals move

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Data bases in a Cellular System

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Databases… Cont’d


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Con Channels … Cont’d

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 Cellular Concepts… Cont’d
• The cellular concept has
the following system level
ideas
 Replacing a single, high power
transmitter with many low power
transmitters, each providing
coverage to only a small area.
 Neighboring cells are assigned
different groups of channels in
order to minimize interference.
 The same set of channels is
then reused at different
geographical locations.
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 Why Cellular concept?
 The cellular concept was a
major breakthrough in solving
the problem of spectral
congestion and user capacity.
 It offered very high capacity in a
limited spectrum allocation
without any major technological
changes.
 It enables a fixed number of
channels to serve an arbitrarily
large number of subscribers by
reusing the channels throughout
the coverage region.

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Terminology
 Cell
 Clusters
 Cluster size
 Frequency reuse
 Reuse Distance
 Handoff
 Tessellation

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Terminology
• Cluster size : The N cells which
collectively use the complete set of
available frequency is called the cluster
size.
• Co-channel cell : The set of cells using the
same set of frequencies as the target cell.
• Interference tier : A set of co-channel cells
at the same distance from the reference
cell is called an interference tier.

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Cells
• A cell is the basic geographic unit of a
cellular system
 The term cellular comes from the honeycomb
shape of the areas into which a coverage
region is divided
 Cells are base stations transmitting over
small geographic areas that are represented
as hexagons
 Size varies depending on the landscape

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Cells… Cont’d
• Every cell uses a different set of
frequencies
• So how does the phone “know” what
frequency to be on?
• A Cell-Site Controller handles this process
 When a cell phone is turned on, it registers with
the network and guards a control frequency
 When a call is placed, the phone requests a
frequency (really two) be assigned
 When a call is received, the call is set up over the
control channel (find the right phone, tell it what
frequencies to use, connect the call)
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Cell Footprint
• The actual radio coverage of a cell is
known as the cell footprint.
 Irregular cell structure and irregular placing of
the transmitter may be acceptable in the
initial system design. However as traffic
grows, where new cells and channels need
to be added, it may lead to inability to reuse
frequencies because of co-channel
interference.
 For systematic cell planning, a regular shape
is assumed for the footprint.
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 Clusters
• A cluster is a group of cells
 No channels are reused within a cluster

A seven Cell Cluster

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 Cluster

• Basic reasons for

clustering is that adjacent
cells can’t use the same
frequency spectrum
because of interference

Cells using the same frequencies(Co-channel Cells)

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 Cluster
• Cells with the same letter
use the same set of
frequencies
 Cells are grouped into
clusters
• A cell cluster is outlined
in bold.
• The number of cells in a
cluster is called cluster
size or frequency reuse
factor
 In this example, the cluster
size is N equal to 7 and
frequency reuse factor is
1/N=1/7

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 Cluster of 7 cells

Cells

•seven groups of channel from A to G

•footprint of a cell - actual radio coverage
•omni-directional antenna v.s. directional antenna
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Example Cluster size of 7, Reuse
Pattern

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Problem with Smaller Cluster size

Interfering cells are closer by when cluster size is smaller.

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Problem with Smaller Cluster size
(Cont’d)
• If interfering cells are closer, then the total
interference power will be larger.
• With higher interference power, the quality of the
speech signal will deteriorate.
• To reduce the interference power, we can make
the cells larger.
• With larger cell, the number of users covered per
unit area reduces. So, the gain (total number of
users supported) of a smaller cluster size is not
as high as we think.

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Activity
• Compare and Contrast Early mobile
telephone system and Cellular telephone
system
• Discuss System level ideas of cellular
concept

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3 Core Principles of cellular concept
 Frequency reuse
 Small cells tessellate overall coverage area
 Users handoff as they move from one cell to
another

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Tessellation
• Some group of small regions tessellate a large
region if they cover the large region without
any gaps or overlaps.

• There are only three regular polygons that

tessellate any given region.

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Tessellation (Cont’d)
Three regular polygons that always tessellate:
 Equilateral triangle

 Square

 Regular Hexagon

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Circles Don’t Tessellate
 Thus, ideally base stations have identical,
circular coverage areas.
 Problem: Circles do not tessellate.
 Instead of circular region, the regular polygons
that tessellate is the hexagon
 Thus, early researchers started using
hexagons to represent the coverage area of a
base station, i.e., a cell.

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Handover / Handoff
• A crucial component of the cellular concept
is the notion of handoffs
 Mobile phone users are by definition mobile, i.e.,
they move around while using the phone
 Thus, the network should be able to give them
continuous access as they move
 This is not a problem when users move within
the same cell
 When they move from one cell to another, a
handoff is needed

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Handover / Handoff
• Occurs as a mobile moves into a
different cell during an existing call, or
when going from one cellular system into
another.
 It must be user transparent, successful and
not too frequent.
 Not only involves identifying a new BS, but
also requires that the voice and control
signals be allocated to channels associated
with the new BS.
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Handoff
 Two reason
 When the Radio Signal’s quality and power
decreases to necessary scores, the
connection deliver to more powerful cell
 When the Trraffic Capacity approaches to
maximum , the connection deliver to less
density of traffic cell

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 Types of Handover
 A hard handover does “break before
make”, i.e. The old channel connection is
broken before the new allocated channel
connection is setup. This obviously can
cause call dropping.
 In soft handover, we do “make before
break”, i.e. The new channel connection
is established before the old channel
connection is released. This is realized in
CDMA where also BS diversity is used to
improve boundary condition.

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Handover indicator
• Each BS constantly monitors the signal
strengths of all of its reverse voice channels to
determine the relative location of each mobile
user with respect to the BS. This information is
forwarded to the MSC who makes decisions
regarding handover.
• Mobile assisted handover (MAHO) : The
mobile station measures the received power
from surrounding BSs and continually reports
the results of these measurements to the
serving BS.
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Handoff strategies
• When a mobile moves into a different cell
while a conversation is in progress, the
MSC automatically transfers the call to a
new channel belonging to the new base
station.
• This handoff operation not only involves
identifying a new base station, but also
requires that the voice and control
signals be allocated to channels
associated with the new base station.
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Dwell Time
• The time over which a user remains
within one cell is called the dwell time.
• The statistics of the dwell time are
important for the practical design of
handover algorithms.
• The statistics of the dwell time vary
greatly, depending on the speed of the
user and the type of radio coverage.

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Practical handover
• High speed users and low speed users have
vastly different dwell times which might cause a
high number of handover requests for high
speed users.
 This will result in interference and traffic management
problem.
• The Umbrella Cell approach will help to solve
this problems. High speed users are serviced by
large (macro) cells, while low speed users are
handled by small (micro) cells.

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Practical handover

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Frequency Reuse
• The design
process of
selecting and
allocating channel
groups for all of
the cellular BSs is
called frequency
reuse or frequency
planning
• Cells with the same
number have the
same set of
frequencies
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50

Frequency Reuse

 Each
colour/letter
uses the same
frequency band

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Frequency Reuse
• Extensive frequency reuse allows for many
users to be supported at the same time.
• Total spectrum allocated to the service
provider is broken up into smaller bands.
• A cell is assigned one of these bands. This
means all communications (transmissions to
and from users) in this cell occur over these
frequencies only.

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 Frequency Reuse
• By limiting the
coverage area to
within the boundaries
of a cell, the same
groups of channels
may be used to cover
different cells that are
separated from one
another by distances
large enough to
keep the interference
levels within tolerable
limits
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Co-Channel location

• To find the nearest co-channel

neighbors of a particular cell, one
must do the following:
 move i cells along any chain of
hexagons and
 turn 60 degrees counter-clockwise
and move j -cells

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 Frequency Reuse (N=7, i=2, j=1)

• Frequency reuse factor = 1/7

• Each cell gets only 1/7 of the

total bandwidth

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Cluster Size N
• In order to tessellate – connect
without gaps between adjacent cells -
- the geometry of the hexagon is
such that number of cells per cluster
N can have values which satisfy

 N=i2+ij+j2 where i and j are non-negative

integers

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 Cluster Size

 The cluster size or the number of cells per cluster is given by

j
N  i  ij  j
2 2

where i and j are integers. 60o

 N = 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 13, 16, 19, 21, 28, …, etc.

The popular value of N being 4 and 7.

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 • From geometry of hexagons is such that the number of
cells per Cluster, N, can only have the values which
satisfy equation

N = i2 + ij + j2, i and j are non-negative integers.

• N can have the values of 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 13,19,…

• Frequency reuse factor = 1/N

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 Co-channel Cell

Method of locating co channel cells , Example for N = 19

i = 3, j = 2
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3-cell reuse pattern (i=1,j=1)

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4-cell reuse pattern (i=2,j=0)

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12-cell reuse pattern (i=2,j=2)

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19-cell reuse pattern (i=3,j=2)

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 Frequency Reuse Distance
• Neighboring cells are assigned a different
frequency band.
• This ensures that nearby transmissions do not
interfere with each other
• The same frequency band is reused in another
cell that is far away. This large distance limits
the interference caused by this co-channel cell
• The minimum distance between two co-channel
cells (cells using the same channel) is called
reuse distance

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Frequency Reuse Distance
F7 F2

F7 F2 F6 F1
F1 F3

F6 F1
F1 F3 F5 F4 F7 F2

F5 F4 F7 F2 F6 F1
F1 F3

F6 F1
F1 F3 F5 F4

F5 F4
Fx: Set of frequency

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Reuse Distance
R Cluster
• For hexagonal cells, the reuse
distance is given by
F7 F2
D  3N R
F6 F1
F1 F3
where R is cell radius and N is the
reuse pattern (the cluster size or the
F5 F4 F7 F2 number of cells per cluster).

F6 F1
F1 F3

F5 F4

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 Co-channel reuse ratio(Q)
• Assuming same cell size and that the base
stations transmit the same power
• The Co-channel interference ratio becomes
independent of the Transmitted power and
becomes function of Radius of the cell (R)
and Distance between centers of the nearest
co-channel cells (D)

D
q  3N
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67
Co-channel reuse ratio(Q)

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Relationship between Q and N

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Reuse Distance calculation

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Distance calculation
 (u1,v1) and (u2,v2) are centers of two cells
 Distance D
D^2 = [ (u2-u1)^2 (cos 30)^2 +
{(v2-v1)+(u2-u1) sin 30}^2]
= [ (u2-u1)^2+(v2-v1)^2 +
(v2-v1)(u2-u1) ]
= [I^2 +J^2+IJ] where
(u1,v1) = (0,0) and (u2,v2) = (I,J)
 Radius is R for a cell.

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Exercise
 Use cosines Law to calculate the reuse
Distance D

D  3N R

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Activities

• Discuss Limitations of Early mobile

telephone System
• Define cell
• What are core/fundamental
principles of cellular system
• What are data bases in cellular
network?
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Factors limiting frequency reuse
• Co-channel interference

• Adjacent channel interference

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Interference
• Two types of interference are important
in such a cellular architecture:
 Cochannel interference
 The interference due to using the same frequencies in cells
of different clusters.
 Adjacent channel interference
 The interference from different frequency channels used
within a cluster whose side lobes overlap.

• The allocation of channels within the

cluster and between clusters must be
done so as to minimize both of these.
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Co-channel & Adjacent channel Interference

Co-channel
interference
Adjacent-
channel
interference

Co-channel
cells

Adjacent-
channel
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77 cells
 Channel Assignment
Strategies

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Channel Assignment Methods
• A limited frequency spectrum to support a large
number of subscribers.
• One solution is to employ a more efficient channel
assignment technique.
• Three types of algorithms for channel allocation:
 Fixed channel allocation (FCA)
 Channel Borrowing
 Dynamic channel allocation (DCA)

• The choice of channel assignment strategy impacts

the performance of the system, particularly as to
how calls are managed when a mobile user is
handed off from one cell to another.
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Channel assignment strategies
—— FCA
• Fixed channel assignment (FCA)
 Each cell or BS is allocated a predetermined
set of frequency channels.
 Any call within a cell can only be assigned
the unused channels from that cell.
 If all channels in a cell have been used, that
call is blocked.

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Channel assignment strategies
—— FCA
• Uniform FCA (UFCA):
 The equal number of channels is allocated to each
cell in a cluster to be 1/N of the total channels.
• Non-uniform FCA:
 Each cell is allocated different number of channels.
The assignment can be based on their traffic load. It
means that if a cell has more traffic, then it is assigned
more channels. The sum of the channel in each
cluster is equal to the total system channels.

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Fixed Channel Allocation
Techniques
• Available spectrum is W Hz and each channel is B
Hz. Total number of channels:
• Nc = W/B

• For a cluster size N, the number of channels per

cell:
• Cc = Nc/N

• To minimize interference, assign adjacent channels

to different cells.

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Example:
A total of 33 MHz are allocated to a system which uses 2x25
kHz for full duplex (i.e., each channel is 50 kHz). What is the
number of channels per cell?

Number of channels per system

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• Now assume 1 MHz of the 33 MHz is allocated to control
channels. Each control channel is still 50 kHz Total number of
voice (traffic) channels is now

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Channel borrowing
• Borrowing strategy
 cell is allowed to borrow channels from a
neighboring cell if all of its own channels are
already occupied.
 where a channel can be borrowed from its
neighboring cell for temporary use as long as
it does not violate the interference constraints.
 The mobile switching center (MSC)
supervises such borrowing procedures.

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Dynamic channel assignment
• Channels are not allocated to cells
permanently.
• When a new call arrives, any channel
can be used by any BS based on certain
algorithm and rule as long as it does not
violate the interference constraints.
• A cell with higher traffic allows to use
more channel to provide higher flexibility.

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DCA
• In a dynamic channel assignment
strategy
 voice channels are not allocated to different
cells permanently.
 each time a call request is made, the serving
base station requests a channel from the
MSC.
 The switch then allocates a channel to the
requested cell following an algorithm.

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DCA
• The algorithms and rules are based on
 Predication of future blocking within the service area
 Reuse distance of the channel
 Other cost functions
• The algorithms will not violate the basic interference
constraint.
 if a channel is used in a particular cell, the same channel
cannot be reused in other cell within a reuse distance D.
 For a cluster size of 3, the same channel in 6(red)
surrounding cells in first tier cannot be used.
 For a cluster size of 7, the same channel in 18(red)
surrounding cells in first two tiers cannot be used.

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Comparison between FCA and
DCA

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Capacity Expansion in Cellular System
Techniques to provide more channels per coverage
area is by
 Cell splitting
 Cell sectoring
 Coverage zone approches

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CELL SPLITTING
• Cell splitting increases the capacity of cellular
system since it increases the number of times the
channel are reused
• Cell splitting - defining new cells which have
smaller radius than orginal cells by installing these
smaller cells called MICROCELLS between existing
cells
• Capacity increases due to additional number of
channels per unit area
“Cell splitting is process of subdividing a congested cell into
smaller cells each with its own base station(with
corresponding reduction in antenna height and tx power)”
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 CELL SPLITTING
Split congested cell into smaller cells.
– Preserve frequency reuse plan.
– Reduce transmission power. Reduce R to R/2

microcell

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 Cell splitting
• Cell splitting increases the number of BSs in order
to increase capacity. There will be a corresponding
reduction in antenna height and transmitter power.
• Cell splitting accommodates a modular growth
capability. This in turn leads to capacity increase
essentially via a system re-scaling of the cellular
geometry without any changes in frequency
planning.
• Small cells lead to more cells/area which in turn
leads to increased traffic capacity.

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 Cell Splitting

Large cell
(low density)

Small cell
(high density)
Smaller cell
(higher density)

Depending on traffic patterns the smaller

cells may be activated/deactivated in
order to efficiently use cell resources.
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 Cell splitting
• For new cells to be smaller in size, the transmit
power must be reduced. If n=4, then with a
reduction of cell radius by a factor of 2, the
transmit power should be reduced by a factor of 24
(why?)
• In theory, cell splitting could be repeated
indefinitely.
• In practice it is limited
 By the cost of base stations
 Handover (fast and low speed traffic)
 Not all cells are split at the same time : practical problems
of BS sites, such as co-channel interference exist
 Innovative channel assignment schemes must be
developed to address this problem for practical systems.
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 Sectoring
• Decrease the co-channel interference and keep the cell radius R
unchanged
– Replacing single omni-directional antenna by several directional
antennas
– Radiating within a specified sector

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 Cell Sectoring by Antenna Design

c
c
120o 120o
a
b a
b

(a). Omni (b). 120o sector (c). 120o sector (alternate)

d f
90o e 60o a
a
c
d b
b c

(d). 90o sector (e). 60o sector

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 Cell Sectoring by Antenna Design

 Placing directional transmitters at corners where three

adjacent cells meet

C
X
A

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 Interference Reduction

position of the
mobile

interference
cells

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Micro cells
• Micro cells can be introduced to alleviate
capacity problems caused by “hotspots”.
• By clever channel assignment, the reuse
factor is unchanged. As for cell splitting,
there will occur interference problems
when macro and micro cells must co-
exist.

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Micro cells

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 Microcell Zone Concept
• Antennas are placed at the outer edges of the cell
• Any channel may be assigned to any zone by the base station
• Mobile is served by the zone with the strongest signal.

• Handoff within a cell

– No channel re-
assignment
– Switch the channel to
a different zone site
• Reduce interference
– Low power
transmitters are
employed

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 Summary Channel Assignment Strategies
• Frequency reuse scheme
– increases capacity
– minimize interference
• Channel assignment strategy
– fixed channel assignment
– dynamic channel assignment
• Fixed channel assignment
– each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channel
– any new call attempt can only be served by the unused channels
– the call will be blocked if all channels in that cell are occupied
• Dynamic channel assignment
– channels are not allocated to cells permanently.
– allocate channels based on request.
– reduce the likelihood of blocking, increase capacity.

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Capacity versus interference for
same size cell

• Decrease N for More Capacity: If Cluster Size, N is

decreased while cell size remains fixed, more clusters are
required to cover the area (M increases). Therefore, Capacity
increases.

• Increase N for Less Interference: On the other hand, if N is

increased (large cluster size) means that co-channels are now
farther than before, and hence we have will have less
interference.

• Value of N is a function of how much interference a mobile or

a base station can tolerate.

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 Capacity of the network
 The number of simultaneous
users is given by:
 n = m (W/N) / B = (m/N) (W/B)
 If W is the total available
spectrum,
 B is the bandwidth needed
per user,
 N is the frequency reuse
factor,
 m is the number of cells
required to cover an area,
 The capacity of the network
can be increased by
 increasing m,
 decreasing the frequency
reuse factor N

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Capacity Computations
• Assume there are N cells, each allocated k different frequency
channels. These N cells are said to form a cluster. Total number of
channels per cluster is given by
• S=kN

• Total capacity associated with M clusters:

• C=MkN=MS
• A cluster may be replicated more times in a given area if the cells are
made smaller (note that power needs to be reduced accordingly).

• Capacity of cellular system is directly proportional to “M”, number of

times a cluster is replicated.

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 Generations of Cellular Network

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Generations of Cellular system

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Cellular Network Generations

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First Generation (1G)
• The first generation of wireless technology,
which was analog based, Voice services
only,
 Eg: AMPS
• Channel Access
 Frequency Division multiple Access(FDMA)

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 Note

AMPS is an analog cellular phone

system using FDMA.

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Second Generation (2G)

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Second Generation.. cont.
 Higher quality signals, higher data rates
 Support of digital services
 Greater capacity
 Digital traffic channels
 Support digital data
 Voice traffic digitized
 User traffic (data or digitized voice) converted to analo
g signal for transmission
 Encryption
 Simple to encrypt digital traffic
 Error detection and correction
 Very clear voice reception
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 Second-generation cellular phone systems

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Global System for Mobile Comm.

• 2nd Generation
• First appeared in 1991 in Europe
• Similar to working of AMPS
• Designed to support phone, data, and image
• Rates up to 9.6 kbps
• GSM transmission is encrypted using secret
keys

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General Architecture of GSM network

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 Note

GSM is a digital cellular phone system

using TDMA and FDMA.

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 Note

IS-95 is a digital cellular phone system

using CDMA/DSSS and FDMA.

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 Note

D-AMPS, or IS-136, is a digital cellular

phone system using TDMA and FDMA.

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Third Generation (3G)

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3rd Generation Wireless
• Provide high speed wireless for voice, data,
video and multimedia
• ITU’s view
 voice quality of wired
 144 kbps high-speed roaming / 384 kbps low-
speed
 adaptive interface to internet for asymmetric
speed
 more efficient use of spectrum
 support wide variety of equipment, services, etc

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Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)

• Wireless Application Protocol

 universal, open standard - WAP forum

 provide mobile users access to information

services, including internet and web
• Works with wireless network technologies
• Based on existing internet standards such as
TCP, IP, HTTP, HTML, XML
• Support limited resources in and variety of
mobile devices
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WAP Specs
• Include
 programming model

 Wireless Markup Language (adhering to XML)

 Micro-browser

 Lightweight protocol stack

 Framework for wireless telephony applications

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 Note

The main goal of third-generation

cellular telephony is to provide
universal personal communication.

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 IMT-2000 radio interfaces

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Fourth Generation (4G)

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Fourth Generation (4G)

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Fourth Generation (4G)

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3G vs 4G

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3G vs 4G

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4G (LTE)
 LTE stands for Long Term Evolution
 Next Generation mobile broadband technology

 Promises data transfer rates of 100 Mbps

 Based on UMTS 3G technology

 Optimized for All-IP traffic

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Advantages of LTE

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Major LTE Features
• Uses Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM) for downlink
• Uses Single Carrier Frequency Division
Multiple Access (SC-FDMA) for uplink
• Uses Multi-input Multi-output(MIMO) for
enhanced throughput
• Reduced power consumption
• Higher RF power amplifier efficiency
(less battery power used by handsets)
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LTE - Advanced

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LTE-Advanced

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 •
•
–
–
–
–
–

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5G cellular
 5G is the fifth generation of cellular
technology.
 It is designed to increase speed, reduce latency,
and improve flexibility of wireless services.
 5G technology has a theoretical peak speed of
20 Gbps
 5G networks are virtualized and software-driven,
and they exploit cloud technologies.
 The 5G network will also simplify mobility, with
seamless open roaming capabilities between
cellular and Wi-Fi access.
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On to 5G!
 goal: 10x increase in peak bitrate, 10x decrease in latency, 100x
increase in traffic capacity over 4G
 5G NR (new radio):
 two frequency bands: FR1 (450 MHz–6 GHz) and FR2 (24 GHz–
52 GHz): millimeter wave frequencies

 not backwards-compatible with 4G

 MIMO: multiple directional antennae
 millimeter wave frequencies: much higher data rates, but over
shorter distances
 pico-cells: cells diameters: 10-100 m
 massive, dense deployment of new base stations
required
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 Exercises
• How cellular System different from other wireless Technologies
• Discuss core principles of cellular systems?
• Name the five different cell types the cellular hierarchy and
compare them in terms of coverage area and antenna site
• Why is hexagonal cell shape preferred over square or triangular cell
shapes to represent the cellular architecture?
• Compare FCA and DCA frequency assignment techniques
• Discuss Hand off strategies in cellular system and why hand off is
necessary in cellular systems
• Why clustering is so important in cellular systems?

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